Jen and Human Biology

Thank You!!

2008-07-25T18:18:00.004-07:00

I would just like to take a moment to say "Thank You" for an amazing class. I hope you all did well, and I wish you the best in your future indevours, whatever they may be. Mr. Frolich, thank you so much for helping me see that Biology isn't just another science class, it's Fun!! I hope to see you guys around town or perhaps in other classes, but until then, stay safe and keep up the good work. And again, "Thank You!!!"

Unit 4 Self/ Unit Evaluation

2008-07-25T18:01:00.004-07:00

REGARDING YOUR OWN PERFORMANCE

1. What were the three aspects of the assignments I've submitted that I am most proud of?
My formatting, my pictures, and my citing.

2. What two aspects of my submitted assignments do I believe could have used some improvement?
Timeliness of postings, and more thorough research.

3. What do I believe my overall grade should be for this unit?
I would have to say about 90 or 95%. I'm confident in my work.

4. How could I perform better in the next unit?
I can't, because the class is over.

REGARDING THE UNIT (adapted from Stephen Brookfield, University of St. Thomas "Critical Incident Questionnaire")

1. At what moment during this unit did you feel most engaged with the course?
I would have to say Fetal Development. As a mother, I find it all very intriguing.

2. At what moment in the unit did you feel most distanced from the course?
If I absolutely had to pick something, it would be Deep Time Evolutionary History. History is not my best subject. LOL.

3. What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit did you find most affirming and helpful?
I most enjoyed the response time on our network forum. I always got an answer within 24 hours or less.

4. What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit did you find most puzzling or confusing?
I honestly cannot think of one single thing. This section was a piece of cake.

5. What about this unit surprised you the most? (This could be something about your own reactions to the course, something that someone did, or anything else that occurs to you.)

My knowledge of most of the content in this section. I honestly thought this unit was going to be the toughest yet, but it wasn't.

Ethical Issue Essay 4- Who Should Reproduce?

2008-07-25T17:47:00.006-07:00

In a world of increasing population, but low birthrates and fertility, who should reproduce? Should we set a limit or even stop producing all together? What is the answer to our problem? In this essay, I will give you two points of view on the situation, as well as my own.

According to http://www.vhemt.org/demography.htm, “Birth rates have dropped to nearly half of what they were in 1950: from an average of 5 offspring to 2.6. Our growth rate has also fallen significantly. Annual population increase likewise has improved from a high of 87 million in 1989 to around 74 million in 2005. Although couples are creating fewer of us, there are more couples creating those new people, which makes more of us. For example, China has one of the lowest birth rates in the world, and yet their natural increase is 10 million per year. This serves as an ominous warning. If cutting fertility rates in half hasn't stopped our increase, what will it take? How much better can we expect birth rates to get? Many regions have reached a plateau and aren't likely to go any lower unless conditions change. Campaigns to improve birth rates have succeeded somewhat and are worthy of additional support. "Stop at two" may have been a radical proclamation when Zero Population Growth* was founded in 1968, but it was barely adequate even then. So-called replacement level fertility of 2.1 offspring per couple wouldn't bring about true zero population growth until the middle of this century, due to momentum. Today the message is only slightly revised: "Consider having none or one, and be sure to stop after two." The notion that producing two descendants simply replaces a couple and creates no increased impact is specious. We aren't salmon - we don't spawn and die. Most of us will be around to see our progeny beget, and those begotten beget to boot. When a couple of us "replaces" ourselves, our environmental impact doubles - assuming our offsprings' lifestyles are as environmentally friendly as ours, and that they won't reproduce themselves. The "stop at two" message actually encourages reproduction by "qualified" couples. Although a wanted child is better than unwanted, intelligent (whatever that is) better than stupid, and well-cared-for better than neglected, each of us in the over-industrialized world has a huge impact on Nature, regardless of these factors. For example, in terms of energy consumption, when a North American couple stops at two it's about the same as an average East Indian couple stopping at 60, or an Ethiopian couple stopping at more than 600. Two is better than four, and one is twice as good as two, but to purposely set out to create even one more of us today is the moral equivalent of selling berths on a sinking ship. Regardless of how many progeny we have or haven't produced, rather than stop at two, we must stop at once.” A very good point with a lot to ponder, but are there other things that contribute to the problem?

According to Moses and Brown, "Although humans are highly unusual organisms in many respects, most characteristics of human physiology are predictable from scaling relationships observed in other mammals, particularly primates. For example, human metabolic rate can be predicted by allometric equations... the metabolic rate of a 60-kilogram human is 120 watts or 2500 calories per day. However, humans differ from other organisms in their social organization and ecology. The exploitation of supplemental energy sources has fueled 10 000 years of exponential human population growth (Cipolla 1972), the development of modern industrial–technological societies, and the rise of Homo sapiens to become the dominant species on earth, with major impacts on global biodiversity, biogeochemical cycles and climate (Vitousek et al. 1986, 1997). Biological metabolism is a small fraction of the total energy consumed by modern humans who utilize vast distribution networks to extract and deliver oil, gas, coal, electricity and other resources. Per capita consumption of this extra-metabolic energy varies from a few hundred watts in the poorest nations, to many thousands of watts in more industrial countries, which rely predominantly on fossil fuels (World Resources Institute 2000). The per capita energyconsumption rate in the United States is 11 000 W (World Resources Institute 2000) which is approximately 100 times the rate of biological metabolism and... is the estimated rate of energy consumption of a 30,000-kg primate." How’s that for something to think about? The energy consumption in the US alone is the same as the energy consumption of a 66,138.68 pound primate.

I have mixed feelings about the whole issue. On one hand, I feel that no one should be told whether they should be allowed or not allowed to have babies. There are already people who are unable to have children, which kind of helps with the problem. But on the other hand, I think it’s a huge issue that needs at least a happy medium solution. Maybe if they made adoption a little easier, people might go that route before having some of their own… that might help a bit. I also believe that if the world continues on the same path it’s traveling on now, that we will run out of natural resources and eventually trash the planet, causing Mother Nature to revolt and probably kill us all and start over from scratch. One thing I strongly believe is that things are meant to happen a certain way, and nothing we do can stop it. If we are meant to over populate, then we are. If we are meant to fix the problem, then we will. I guess we’ll just have to wait and see what happens.

So, who should reproduce? And what is the ultimate answer to this world wide problem?

Picture- http://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/Movies/historic/HumanRep1947.jpg

Opinion 1- http://www.vhemt.org/demography.htm

Opinion 2- Moses and Brown (2003). Allometry of human fertility and energy use. Ecology Letters 6: 295-300.

Opinion 3- Self (jennifer.green_1985@yahoo.com)

Unit 4 Offline Lab Pictures

2008-07-24T15:36:00.004-07:00

Tumbleweeds

Sterling Silver Rose

Desert Willow Tree

Wolf Spider

Bull or Gopher Snake

Western Honey Bee

Oldwife Underwing Moth

Texas Cichlid

Ball Python

Arizona Toad

Tumbleweed http://www.thirstyrock.com/Tumbleweed/tumbleweed2.jpg
Rose http://farm1.static.flickr.com/225/455952056_d31defee3b.jpg?v=0
Desert Willow http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Chilopsis_linearis_foliage.jpg/632px-Chilopsis_linearis_foliage.jpg
Wolf Spider http://magickcanoe.com/spiders/wolf-spider-beige-regular.jpg
Gopher Snake http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Bull_snake.jpg/800px-Bull_snake.jpg
Western Honey Bee http://lh6.ggpht.com/__Le_vMi7wPE/RoNAo5ILh9I/AAAAAAAABac/w5s37JPAcfE/Honeybee_landing_on_milkthistle02.jpg
Oldwife Underwing Moth http://mariewin.server304.com/marieblog/uploaded_images/OLDWIFE-757154.jpg
Texas Cichlid http://www.aquahobby.com/gallery/img/Herichthys_cyanoguttatus_4.jpg
Ball Python http://z.about.com/d/exoticpets/1/0/s/j/artiebp26.JPG
Arizona Toad http://www.reptilesofaz.com/Graphics/Turtles-Amphibians/herp-b-microscaphus-rb-03.jpg

Unit 4 Offline Lab- List of Species

2008-07-24T15:31:00.003-07:00

The purpose of this lab was to make a list of 20 species that we interact with over the period of a day. We are to give a common name, scientific name, describe our interactions according to ecological principles, and tell whether we think it is domesticated. Here is my list:
1. Chicken- Gallus domesticas- Commensal- Domesticated and Wild
2. Horse- Equus caballus- Mutualistic- Domesticated and Wild
3. Fire Ant- Solenopsis geminata- Parasitic- Wild
4. Tumbleweed- Amaranthus albus- Commensal- Wild *
5. Rose- Rosa ‘Sterling Silver’- Mutualistic- Domesticated and Wild *
6. Onion- Allium cepa- Parasitic/ Predator/Prey- Domesticated and Wild
7. Desert Willow- Chilopsis linearis- Commensal- Domesticated and Wild *
8. House Fly- Musca domestica- Commensal- Domesticated and Wild
9. Southern House Mosquito- Culex quinquefasciatus- Parasitic- Wild
10. Plaque- Fusobacterium nucleatum- Parasitic- Wild
11. Wolf Spider- Rhabidosa rabida- Mutualistic- Wild *
12. Bull or Gopher Snake- Pituophis melancoleucus- Mutualistic- Domesticated and Wild *
13. Western Honey Bee- Apis mellifera- Mutualistic- Wild *
14. Oldwife Underwing Moth- Catocala neogama- Commensal- Domesticated and Wild *
15. Texas Cichlid- Herichthys cyanoguttatus- Commensal- Domesticated and Wild *
16. Betta- Betta splenderis- Commensal- Domesticated and Wild
17. Bearded Dragon- Pogona vitticeps- Commensal- Domesticated and Wild
18. Long Haired Chihuahua- Canis familiaris- Mutualistic- Domesticated and Wild
19. Ball Python- Python regius- Commensal- Domesticated and Wild *
20. House Cat- Felis catus- Mutualistic- Domesticated
21. Arizona Toad- Bufo microscaphus- Mutualistic- Wild *
22. Human- Homo sapien- Symbiotic- Domesticated
*= see photo
I think that humans have been co-evolving with these species and/or their ancestors for millions of years. We may not like some or even all of them, but we learn to live together.

Unit 4 Online Lab 2- Demographics

2008-07-23T14:15:00.003-07:00

Low Fertility

High Fertility

1. What was your high fertility rate country and what was its fertility rate?

My high fertility rate country was Africa, with a fertility rate of 5.90.

2. What was your low fertility rate country and what was its fertility rate?

My low fertility country was Europe, with a fertility rate of 1.60.

3. The initial demographic "shape" of your high fertility rate country should have been a pyramid, with high population in young age groups. Explain why high fertility rate results in a high percentage of young people in the population. How does this affect future population growth?

More women are entering the reproductive years then older women leaving them, resulting in a higher population of younger people. Unfortunately, this results in a very high population in the future.

4. Your low fertility rate country might have had a more oval-shaped curve with high population in middle age groups. This is especially exaggerated if the fertility rate is below 2.00. Explain why low fertility rate leads to lots of middle-aged people.

If not as many people are having kids, there are lower amounts of younger people, resulting in more middle aged people.

5. Write ten adjectives or descriptive phrases for what you might expect life, people's attitudes, conditions on the streets, etc. will be like in each of those situations. Imagine a situation with lots of middle-aged and older people in the population and write ten quick "brain-storm" descriptors for you think it would be like (Prescott, Arizona?). Then do the same for a situation with lots of children in the population.

low fertilization high fertilization

1. strict 1. crazy
2. lazy 2. fast paced
3. nice 3. mean
4. laid back 4. uptight
5. slow paced 5. urban
6. suburban 6. messy
7. movie like 7. helpless
8. peaceful 8. overload
9. beautiful 9. obese
10. helping 10. loud

Unit 4 Compendium 2 Pictures

2008-07-23T13:24:00.006-07:00

Protocell

Evolution

Darwin Evolution

Hominids

Ecosystem

Biotic Components

Energy Flow

Water Cycle

Carbon Cycle

Nitrogen Cycle

Phosphorus Cycle

Hunam Population Growth

Resources and Pollution

Biodiversity

Sustainable Society

Protocell http://genome.nasa.gov/MediaLib/cell_model.gif
Evolution http://www.bordalierinstitute.com/images/animalsEvolution.jpg
Darwin Evolution http://www.starlarvae.org/SL_graphics/evolutionchart.jpg
Hominids http://www.uiowa.edu/~bioanth/ergaster.jpg
Ecosystem http://www.nrri.umn.edu/worms/forest/images/ecosystem_fig3.gif
Biotic Components http://www.bcgrasslands.org/understanding/eco_biotic.jpg
Energy Flow http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=6536&rendTypeId=4
Water Cycle http://www.usgcrp.gov/usgcrp/images/ocp2003/WaterCycle-optimized.jpg
Carbon Cycle http://www.kidsgeo.com/images/carbon-cycle.gif
Nitrogen Cycle http://www.h2ou.com/h2images/NitrogenCycle-lgr-F.jpg
Phosphorus Cycle http://vincejtremante.tripod.com/images/phosphorus.jpg
Human Population Growth http://www.globalchange.umich.edu/globalchange2/current/lectures/human_pop/worldpop.jpg
Resources and Pollution http://farm3.static.flickr.com/2275/2333105291_d8dbbcaa97_o.jpg
Biodiversity http://www.scq.ubc.ca/wp-content/uploads/2006/08/Biodiversity.jpg
Sustainable Society http://www.nec.co.jp/eco/en/annual2005/03/images/3-4-01-01.jpg

Unit 4 Compendium 2- Human Landscapes

2008-07-23T11:10:00.002-07:00

Table of Contents

I. Human Evolution
A. Origin of Life
B. Biological Evolution
C. Classification of Humans
D. Evolution of Hominids
E. Evolution of Humans
II. Global Ecology and Human Interferences
A. The Nature of Ecosystems
B. Energy Flow
C. Global Biochemical Cycles
III. Human Population, Planetary Resources, and Conservation
A. Human Population Growth
B. Human Use of Resources and Pollution
C.Biodiversity
D. Working Toward a Sustainable Society

I. Human Evolution
A. Origin of Life
1. Data suggests that a chemical produced the first cell (Protocell).
a. Using an outside energy source, small organic molecules were produced by resctions between early Earth's atmospheric gases.
b. Macromolecules evolved and interacted.
c. The RNA- first hypothesis- only macromolecule RNA was needed for the first cell(s).
d. The protein- first hypothesis- amino acids join to form polypeptides when exposed to dry heat.
e. The protocell, a heterotrophic fermenter, lived on preformed organic molecules in the ocean.
2. The protocell eventually became a true cell once it had genes composed of DNA and could reproduce.
B. Biological Evolution
1. Biological evolution explains both the unity and diversity of life.
a. Descent from a common ancestor explains the unity (sameness) of living things.
b. Adaptation to different environments explains the great diversity of living things.
c. Fossil evidence supports evolution- the fossil record gives us the history of life in general and allows us to trace the descent of a particular group.
2. Darwin discovered much evidence for common descent.
a. Biogeographical evidence- the distribution of organisms on earth is explainable by assuming that organisms evolved in one locale.
b. Anatomical evidence- the common anatomies and development of a group of organisms are explainable by descent from a common ancestor.
c. Biochemical evidence- all organisms have similar biochemical molecules.
3. Darwin developed a mechanism for adaptation known as natural selection.
a. The result of natural selection is a population adapted to its local environment.
C. Classification of Humans
1. The classification of humans can be used to trace their ancestry.
a. Humans are primates.
b. A primate evolutionary tree shows that humans share a common ancestor with African apes.
D. Evolution of Hominids
1. The first hominid, including humans, most likely lived about six to seven million years ago.
2. Certain features, such as bipedal posture, flat face, and brain, identify fossil hominids.
3. Ardipithecines were most likely hominids.
4. Evolution of Australopithecines: The evolutionary tree of hominids resembles a bush, not a straight line of fossils leading to modern humans.
a. Australopithecines, a hominid, lived about three million years ago.
b. They could walk erect, but they had a small brain.
c. This testifies to a mosaic evolution for humans (not all advanced features evolved at the same time).
E. Evolution of Humans
1. Fossils are classified as Homo with regard to brain size (over 600 cm³), jaws and teeth (resemble modern humans'), and evidence of tool use.
a. Homo habilis made and used tools.
b. Homo erectus was the first Homo to have a brain size of more than 1,000 cm³.
c. Homo erectus migrated from Africa into Europe and Asia.
d. Homo erectus used fire and may have been big-game hunters.
2. Evolution of Modern Humans: Two hypotheses of modern human evolution are being tested.
a. The multiregional continuity hypothesis suggests that modern humans evolved separately in Europe, Africa, and Asia.
b. The out-of-Africa hypothesis says that Homo sapiens evolved in Africa but they migrated to Asia and Europe.
3. Neandertals and Cro-Magnons
a. The neandertals were already living in Europe and Asia before modern humans arrived.
b. They had a culture, but did not have the physical traits of modern humans.
c. Cro-Magnons are the oldest fossil to be designated Homo sapiens. Their tools were sophisticated, and they had a culture.
II. Global Ecology and Human Interferences
A. The Nature of Ecosystems
1. Ecology is the study of the interactions of organisms with each other and with the physical environment.
a. Organisms interact with the physical and chemical environment, and the result is an ecosystem.
b. Terrestrial ecosystems are forrests (tropical rain forrests, coniferous, temerate deciduous), grasslands (savanna and prairie), and deserts, which includes the tundra.
c. Aquatic ecosystems are either saltwater (seashores, oceans, coral reefs, estuaries) or freshwater (lakes, ponds, rivers, and streams).
2. Biotic Components of an Ecosystem
a. In a community, each population has a habitat (residence) and a niche (its role in the community).
b. Autotrophs (producers) produce organic nutrients for themselves ant others from inorganic nutrients and an outside energy source.
c. Heterotrophs (consumers) consume organic nutrients.
d. Consumers are herbivores (eat plants/algae), carnivores (eat other animals), and omnivores (eat both plants and animals).
e. Decomposers feed on detritus, releasing inorganic substances back into the ecosystem.
3. Ecosystems are characterized by energy flow and chemical cycling.
a. Energy flows through the populations of an ecosystem.
b. Chemicals cycle within and among ecosystems.
B. Energy Flow
1. Various interconnecting paths of energy flow are called a food web.
a. A food web is a diagram showing how various organisms are connected by eating relationships.
b. Grazing food webs begin with vegetation eaten by a herbivore that becomes food for a carnivore.
c. Detrital food webs begin with detritus, food for decomposers and for detritivores.
d. Members of detrital food webs can be eaten by aboveground carnivores, joining the two food webs.
2. Trophic Levels- all the organisms that feed at a particular link in a food chain.
a. Ecological pyramids illustrate that biomass and energy content decrease from one trophic level to the next because of energy loss.
C. Global Biochemical Cycles
1. Chemicals circulate through ecosystems via biogeochemical cycles, pathways involving both biotic and geological components. Biogeochemical cycles:
a. Can be gaseous or sedimentary.
b. Have reservoirs (Ex: ocean sediments, the atmosphere, and organic matter) that contain inorganic nutrients available to living things on a limited basis.
c. Exchange pools are sources of inorganic nutrients.
d. Nutrients cycle among the biotic communities (producers, consumers, decomposers) of an ecosystem.
2. The Water Cycle
a. The reservoir is freshwater that evaporates from the ocean.
b. Water that falls on land enters the ground, surface waters, or aquifers and evaporates again.
c. All water returns to the ocean.
3. The Carbon Cycle
a. The reservoirs are organic matter (forests and dead organisms for fossil fuels), limestone, and the ocean (calcium carbonate shells).
b. The exchange pool is the atmosphere.
c. Photosynthesis removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
d. Respiration and combustion add carbon dioxide to the atmosphere.
4. The Nitrogen Cycle
a. The reservoir is the atmosphere.
b. Nitrogen gas must be converted to a form usable by plants.
c. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria, in root nodules, convert nitrogen gas to ammonium, a form producers can use.
d. Nitrifying bacteria convert ammonium to nitrate.
e. Denitrifying bacteria convert nitrate back to nitrogen gas.
5. The Phosphorus Cycle
a. The reservoir is ocean sediments.
b. Phosphate in ocean sediments becomes available through geological upheaval, which exposes sedimentary rocks to weathering.
c. Weathering slowly makes phosphate available to the biotic community.
d. Phosphate is a limiting nutrient in ecosystems.
III. Human Population, Planetary Resources, and Conservation.
A. Human Population Growth
1. Populations have a biotic potential for increase in size.
2. Biotic potential is normally held in check by environmental resistance.
3. Population size usually levels off at carrying capacity.
4. The More Developed Countries versus the Less Developed Countries.
a. The MDCs have a 0.1% growth rate since 1950.
b. The LDC growth rate is presently 1.6% after peaking at 2.5% in the 1960s.
5. Age-structure diagrams can be used to predict population growth.
a. MDCs are approaching a stable population size.
b. LDC populations will continue to increase in size.
B. Human Use of Resources and Pollution.
1. Five resources are maximally used by humans:
a. Land, water, food, energy, and minerals.
2. Resources are either nonrenewable or renewable.
a. Nonrenewable resources are not replenished and are limited in quantity (Ex: land, fossil fuels, and minerals).
b. Renewable resources are replenished but still are limited in quantity (Ex: water, solar energy, and food).
3. Land
a. Human activities, such as habitation, farming, and mining, contribute to erosion, pollution, desertification, deforestation, and loss of biodiversity.
4. Water
a. Industry ans agriculture use most of the freshwater supply. Water supplies are increased by damming rivers and drawing from aquifers. As aquifers are depleted, subsidence, sink hole formation, and saltwater intrusion can occur. If used by industries, water conservation methods could cut world water consumption by half.
5. Food- comes from growing crops, raising animals, and fishing.
a. Modern farming methods increase the food supply, but some methods harm the land, pollute water, and consume fossil fuels excessively.
b. Genetically engineered plants increase the food supply and reduce the need for chemicals.
c. Raising livestock contributes to water pollution and uses fossil fuel energy.
d. The increased number and high efficiency of fishing boats have caused the world fish catch to decline.
6. Energy- Fossil fuels (oil, natural gas, coal) are nonrenewable sources. Burning fossil fuels and burning to clear land for farming cause pollutants and gases to enter the air.
a. Greenhouse gases include CO2 and others. Greenhouse gases cause global warming because solar radiation can pass through, but infrared heat cannot escape back into space.
b. Renewable resources include hydropower, geothermal, wind, and solar power.
7. Minerals- nonrenewable resources that can be mined. These raw materials include sand, gravel, phosphate, and metals. Mining causes destruction of the land by erosion, loss of vegetation, and toxic runoff into bodies of water. Some metals are dangerous to health. Land mined can take years to recover.
a. Hazardous Wastes- billions of tons of solid waste are discarded on land and in water.
b. Heavy metals (lead, arsenic, cadmium, chromium).
c. Synthetic organic chemicals include chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), which are involved in the production of plastics, pesticides, herbicides, and other products.
d. Ozone shield destruction is associated with CFCs.
e. Other synthetic organic chemicals enter the aquatic food chain, where the toxins become more concentrated (biological magnification).
C. Biodiversity- the variety of life on Earth.
1. The five major causes of biodiversity loss and extinction are:
a. Habitat loss, introduction of alien species, pollution, overexploration of plants and animals, and disease.
2. Direct values of biodiversity are:
a. Medicinal value (medicines derived from living organisms).
b. Agricultural value (crops derived from wild plants; biological pest controls and animal pollinators).
c. Consumptive use values (food production).
3. Biodiversity in ecosystems contributes to:
a. Waste disposal, through the action of decomposers and the ability of natural communities to purify water and take up pollutants.
b. Freshwater provision through the water biogeochemical cycle.
c. Prevention of soil erosion, which occurs naturally in intact ecosystems.
d. Function of biogeochemical cycles.
e. Climate regulation (plants take up carbon dioxide).
f. Ecotourism- human enjoyment of a beautiful ecosystem.
D. Working Toward a Sustainable Society
1. A sustainable society would use only renewable energy sources, would reuse heat and waste materials, and would recycle almost everything. It would also provide the same goods and services presently provided and would preserve biodiversity.

Unit 4 Online Lab- Embryonic and Fetal Development

2008-07-16T14:27:00.006-07:00

For this lab, we were to pick what we thought were the ten (10) most important stages in embryonic/ fetal development, and then explain why we think it's important. Here are my ten:

Stage 1- 1 day post ovulation (po)- sperm penetrates an Oocyte (egg) and it ends with the creation of a Zygote- important because without fertilization, there would be no Zygote.

Stage 6- 13 days po- placenta and stalk form, and primitive streak, gastrulation, and ectoderm appear- important because without the placenta, the embryo could not survive.

Stage 10- 21 to 23 days - somites appear, neural folds begin to fuse, and heart folds begin to fuse, forming the beginning of a heart which begins to contract- important because the heart is a major part of the body, it keeps it going and things working.

Stage 13- 26 to 30 days- the first thin surface layer of skin appears covering the embryo- important because skin holds the body all together and helps keep things out of the body.

Stage 20- 51 to 53 days- the brain is connected to muscles and nerves which enable the embryo to make spontaneous movements, the nose is formed, and the reproductive organs are forming- important because the nervous system is imperative for movement, the nose for the sence of smell and for taste, and the reproductive organs for obvious reasons.

Week 14- Fetal sexual organs are now clearly visible- for me, this is important for ultrasound purposes. I like to plan ahead. It's good to remember though, that ultrasounds, especially at 14 weeks, are not always acurate.

Week 16- Finger prints and toe prints begin to develop, and circulation is completely functional- important because finger and toe prints are unique, no two are alike, and because the circulatory system is imperative for a functioning body.

Week 20- Bone marrow starts to make blood cells- WBCs are needed for the immune system, RBCs are needed for transport of O2, CO2, and other wastes, and platelets form plugs in damaged vessels for repair. All three being important in their own way.

Week 26- Lungs begin to produce Surfactant and are capable of breathing air- important because lungs are needed for O2 CO2 exchange in RBCs.

Week 32- The fetus begins to develop an immune system- important because a strong immune system is needed to fight of foreign bodies in the body (Ex: viruses and bad bacteria).

It was really heard to narrow it down to just 10, because I think all stages of development are important, but this is what I ended up with.

Stage 1 http://www.thekeytoislam.com/en/assets/images/g_fertilization_1.jpg

Stage 6 http://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/medicine/images/day16hp.jpg

Stage 10 http://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/wwwhuman/Stages/Images/CSt10bL.gif

Stage 13 http://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/wwwhuman/Stages/Stage13L.htm

Stage 20 http://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/wwwhuman/Stages/Stage20L.htm

Week 14 http://www.c2g.ca/images/14weeks.jpg

Week 16 http://www.health.state.mn.us/wrtk/images/wk16.jpg

Week 20 http://www.hss.state.ak.us/dph/wcfh/informedconsent/images/18-weeksSUB.jpg

Week 26 http://assets.babycenter.com/i/m/stages/popups/26/index.jpg

Week 32 http://www.c2g.ca/images/32weeks.jpg

Unit 4 Compendium 1 Pictures

2008-07-15T13:52:00.007-07:00

Human Life Cycle

Male Reproductive System

Female Reproductive System

Female Hormone Levels

Birth Control

STDs

Fertilization

Embryonic Development

Fetal Development

Pregnancy

Stages of Birth

Aging

Just thought this one was kind of funny. Thought you all might enjoy it too.

Human Life Cycle

http://www.oum.ox.ac.uk/thezone/animals/life/images/cycle1.gifMale

Reproductive System http://www.drstandley.com/images/male.gif

Female Reproductive System http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=55703&rendTypeId=4

Female Hormone Levels http://www.fertilityplus.org/images/menstrualcycle.jpg

Birth Control Methods http://z.about.com/d/contraception/1/5/H/1/-/-/BirthControlMethods.JPG

STDs http://www.fhi.org/pic/stdcntrl/stdcontrol_008l.jpg

Fertilization http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=72160&rendTypeId=35

Embryonic Development http://stemcells.nih.gov/StaticResources/info/scireport/images/figurea4.jpg

Fetal Development http://www.cerebralpalsychildren.com/CP1.jpg

Pregnancy http://img.tfd.com/dorland/pregnancy.jpg

Stages of Birth http://www.healthatoz.com/healthatoz/Atoz/images/ency/00010859_00010860_00010861.jpg

Aging http://www.vrp.com/newsimages/April05NeuroTable1.jpg

Just for Fun http://www.strangecosmos.com/images/content/104918.jpg

Unit 4 Compendium 1- Reproduction

2008-07-15T11:30:00.004-07:00

Table of Contents

I. Reproductive System
A. Human Life Cycle
B. Male Reproductive System
C. Female Reproductive System
D. Female Hormone Levels
E. Control of Reproduction
F. Sexually Transmitted Diseases
II. Development and Aging
A. Fertilization
B. Pre-Embryonic and Embryonic Development
C. Fetal Development
D. Pregnancy and Birth
E. Development After Birth

I. Reproductive System
A. Human Life Cycle
1. The life cycle of higher organisms, such as humans, requires two types of cell division.
a. Mitosis- growth and repair of tissues; 46 chromosomes in each cell.
b. Meiosis- gamete production; reduces from 46 to 23 chromosomes in each cell.
B. Male Reproductive System
1. The external genitals of males are:
a. Penis- organ for sexual intercourse.
b. Scrotum- contains the testes.
2. Spermatogenesis, occurring in seminiferous tubules of the testes, produces sperm.
a. Mature sperm are stored in the epididymides.
b. Sperm pass from the vasa deferentia to the urethra.
c. The seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and bulbourethral glands add fluids, by secretion, to sperm.
d. Sperm and secretions are called semen or seminal fluid.
3. Orgasm in males results in ejaculation of semen from the penis.
4. Hormone Regulation in Males
a. Hormone regulation, involving secretions from the hypothalamus, the anterior pituitary, and the testes, maintains a fairly constant level of Testosterone.
b. FSH from the anterior pituitary promotes spermatogenesis.
c. LH from the anterior pituitary promotes Testosterone production by interstitial cells.
C. Female Reproductive System
1. Oogenesis occurring within the ovaries typically produces one mature follicle each month.
a. The follicle balloons out of the ovary and bursts, releasing an egg that enters an oviduct.
b. The oviducts lead to the uterus, where implantation and development occur, if the egg is fertilized.
2. The female external genital area includes: the vaginal opening, the clitoris, the labia minora, and the labia majora.
a. The vagina is the organ for sexual intercourse and the birth canal in females.
3. Orgasm in females culminates in uterine and oviduct contractions.
D. Female Hormone Levels
1. Ovarian Cycle: Non Pregnant
a. The ovarian cycle is under the hormonal control of the hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary.
b. During the cycle's first half, FSH from the anterior pituitary causes maturation of a follicle that secretes Estrogen and some Progesterone.
c. After ovulation and during the cycle's second half, LH from the anterior pituitary converts the follicle into the corpus luteum.
d. The corpus luteum secretes Progesterone and some Estrogen.
2. Uterine Cycle: Non Pregnant
a. Estrogen and Progesterone regulate the uterine cycle.
b. Estrogen causes the endometrium to rebuild.
c. Ovulation usually occurs on day 14 of a 28 day cycle.
d. Progesterone produced by the corpus luteum causes the endometrium to thicken and become secretory.
e. A low level of hormones causes the endometrium to break down as menstration occurs.
3. Fertilization and Pregnancy
a. If fertilization takes place, the embryo implants itself in the thickened endometrium.
b. The corpus luteum is maintained because of HCG production by the placenta, and therefore, Progesterone production does not cease.
c. Menstration usually does not occur during pregnancy.
E. Control of Reproduction
1. Numerous birth control methods and devices are available:
a. Intrauterine Device (IUD), Hormone Skin Patch, Depo-Provera, Diaphram with Spermicidal Jelly, Female Condom, Male Condom, Implant, Oral Contraceptive (the pill), Cervical Shield or Cap, Morning-After Pills, Vaginal Ring, Douching, Withdrawal Method, Natural Family Planning, Abstinence.
b. Effectiveness of each varies.
2. Assisted reproductive technologies may help infertile couples to have children. Some of these technologies are:
a. Artificial Insemination by Donor (AID)
b. In-Vitro Fertilization (IVF)
c. Gamete Intrafallopian Transfer (GIFT)
d. Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection (ICSI)
F. Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs) are caused by viruses, bacteria, protists, fungi, and animals.
1. STDs caused by viruses:
a. AIDS is caused by the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV).
b. Genital Warts are caused by the Human Papillomavirus (HPV); these viruses cause warts or lesions on genitals and are associated with certain cancers.
c. Genital Herpes is caused by the Herpes Simplex virus type II; causes blisters on genitals.
d. Hepatitis is caused by Hepatitis visuses A, B, C, D, E, and G. A nad E are usually aquired from contaminated water, B and C from bloodborne transmission, and B,D, and G are sexually transmitted.
2. STDs caused by bacteria:
a. Chlamydia is caused by Chlamydia Trachomatis; PID can result.
b. Gonorrhea is caused by Neisseria Gonorrhoeae; PID can result.
c. Syphilis is caused by Treponema Pallidum; has three stages, with the third resulting in death.
3. Two Other Infections:
a. Bacterial Vaginosis is caused by Gardnerella Vaginalis.
b. Trichomoniasis is an overgrowth of Candida Albicans.
II. Development and Aging
A. Fertilization
1. A single sperm is drawn into the egg by microvilli of its plasma membrane. With the help of enzymes from the acrosome, a sperm makes its way through the zona pellucida. After a sperm binds to the plasma membrane of the egg, changes occur that prevent other sperm from entering the egg. Fertilization is complete when the sperm pronucleus and the egg pronucleus contribute chromosomes to the zygote.
B. Pre-Embryonic and Embryonic Development
1. Processes of Development.
a. Cleavage- Immediately after fertilization, the zygote begins to divide so that there are first 2, then 4, 8, 16, and 32 cells, and so forth. Increase in size does not accompany these divisions. Cell division during clevage is mitotic, and each cell recieves a full complement of chromosomes and genes.
b. Growth- during embryonic development, cell division is accompanied by an increase in size of the daughter cells.
c. Morphogenesis- refers to the shaping of the embryo and is first evident when certain cells are seen to move, or migrate, in relation to other cells. By these movements, the embryo begins to assume various shapes.
d. Differentiation- when cells take on a specific structure and function, differentiation occurs. The first system to become visibly differentiated is the nervous system.
2. The extraembryonic membranes (chorion, allantois, yolk sac, and amnion) function in internal development.
C. Fetal Development
1. At the end of the embryonic period, all organ systems are established, and there is a mature and functioning placenta.
2. The umbilical arteries and umbilical vein take blood to and from the placenta, where exchanges take place.
a. Exchanges supply the fetus with oxygen and nutrients and rid the fetus of carbon dioxide and wastes.
b. The venous duct joins the umbilical vein to the inferior vena cava.
c. The oval duct and arterial duct allow the blood to pass through the heart without going to the lungs.
3. Fetal development extends from the third through the ninth month.
a. During the third and forth month, the skeleton is becoming ossified.
b. The sex of the fetus becomes distinguishable. If an SRY gene is present, testes and male genitals develop. Otherwise, ovaries and female genetals develop.
c. During the fifth through the ninth month, the fetus continues to grow and to gain weight.
D. Pregnancy and Birth
1. Major changes occur in the mother's body during pregnancy.
a. Weight gain occurs as the uterus occupies most of the abdominal cavity.
b. Constipation, heartburn, darkening of certain skin areas, and pregnancy-induced diabetes, are due to the presence of placental hormones (hCG).
2. Birth
a. Apositive feedback mechanism that involves uterine contractions and oxytocin explains the onset and continuation of labor.
b. During stage one of parturition (birth), the cervix dilates.
c. During stage two, the child is born.
d. During stage three, the afterbirth is expelled.
E. Development After Birth- consists of infancy, childhood, adolescence, and adulthood.
1. Aging encompasses progressive changes, from about age 20 on, that contribute to an increased risk of infirmity, disease, and death.
2. Hypotheses of Aging
a. Aging may have a genetic basis.
b. Aging may be due to changes that affect the whole body (ex: decline of hormonal system).
c. Aging may be due to extrinsic factors (ex: diet and exercise).
3. Effect of age on body systems:
a. Deterioration of organ systems can possibly be prevented or reduced by utilizing good health habits.

Unit 3 Ethical Issue Essay- Exercise

2008-07-10T11:25:00.004-07:00

Exercise. Everyone needs it, but why? In a world of increasing Obesity, what are we doing to change our exercise habits? And what is the ideal setting for a perfect world with adequate nutrition and exercise. In this essay, I will answer those questions with opinions from KidsHealth.org, The Scotland Government, and James O. Hill, Holly R. Wyatt, and John C. Peters, and will follow with my own opinion on the subject of exercise.

Why do we need exercise? According to Kids Health, “Experts recommend that teens get 60 minutes or more of moderate to vigorous physical activity each day. Here are some of the reasons: Exercise benefits every part of the body, including the mind. Exercising causes the body to produce endorphins, chemicals that can help a person to feel more peaceful and happy. Exercise can help some people sleep better. It can also help some people who have mild depression and low self-esteem. Plus, exercise can give people a real sense of accomplishment and pride at having achieved a certain goal — like beating an old time in the 100-meter dash. Exercising can help you look better. People who exercise burn more calories and look more toned than those who don't. In fact, exercise is one of the most important parts of keeping your body at a healthy weight. Exercise helps people lose weight and lower the risk of some diseases. Exercising to maintain a healthy weight decreases a person's risk of developing certain diseases, including type II diabetes and high blood pressure. These diseases, which used to be found mostly in adults, are becoming more common in teens. Exercise can help a person age well. This may not seem important now, but your body will thank you later. Women are especially prone to a condition called osteoporosis (a weakening of the bones) as they get older. Studies have found that weight-bearing exercise, like jumping, running or brisk walking, can help girls (and guys!) keep their bones strong. There are three components to a well-balanced exercise routine: aerobic exercise, strength training, and flexibility training.” All good reasons, but what are we doing to change our habits?

According to the Scotland Government Publications, the whole country is changing their habits. Some of the changes include, “The 'Live Active' GP exercise referral scheme, which encourages adults with cardiac problems to incorporate gentle exercise into their routine (e.g. walking to the shops). The Fife Millennium Travel Plans for cycle ways, school and workplace, which promotes sustainable travel behaviour and has resulted in higher cycling usage across the council area. Developing a network of walking groups with the 'Bums off Seats' initiative. The project leads 21 walks every week and has over 200 trained volunteer walk leaders. A Lottery-funded project saw the development of over 300 miles of cycleway in Fife. The Council produced an accompanying series of helpful cycle maps for both day-to-day and leisure use. A regular newsletter provides up-to-date information about the improvements or changes to the routes and the various cycling events that are held. Healthy Highland Week, a seven-day programme of information and activities to raise health awareness. The Highland School Travel Plan Guide, 'How-to' advice clearly linking the benefits between health and travel. 'Step it up', a series of walking initiatives targeted at building confidence in those not used to physical activity. Offered training to nervous would-be cyclists and cheap second-hand bikes through a local charity.” All very good changes, but what is the ideal environment for optimal nutrition and exercise?

According to James O. Hill, Holly R. Wyatt, and John C. Peters, “It is easiest to think about specific changes in the built environment that could facilitate physical activity. Research shows that people living in mixed use communities with traditional grid designs and with sidewalks and bike paths are more physically active than those living in typical “urban sprawl” communities (Saelens et al. 2003). In many of these mixed communities, walking is an efficient mode of transportation for getting to shopping, schools, and other community destinations. Many such new communities are being built, and it will be important to study these, both to understand the specific characteristics of the built environment that affect physical activity and to document the long-term impact on physical activity and obesity. Far less attention has been focused on the nutrition environment within communities. Can we begin to address the built environment for food as we do physical activity? Our vision of the built environment for food involves places we would eat or obtain food, such as restaurants, vending, grocery stores, and convenience stores. We must understand how the numbers and types of food establishments in an individual’s environment affect food intake. How much does food availability affect food intake? An example of this is that both the number of grocery stores available and the types of food available in grocery stores vary between neighborhoods and could affect food intake differently in different neighborhoods. If our food environments are currently encouraging unhealthy eating, how might they be changed to facilitate healthier eating? This could begin with food manufacturers that could modify the food supply so that overconsumption is reduced. Research has identified several characteristics of our food supply that affect how much food is consumed. People tend to consume more food when it is high in fat or energy density (Rolls and Bell 1998; Stubbs et al. 1995). Similarly, more food is consumed when food is served in larger portions (Kral et al. 2004). Efforts to change the food supply to reduce the fat content and energy density and to lower serving sizes could have a positive impact on obesity. But, how do we convince the consumer this is a good value? Will consumers pay relatively more for less even if they know it is in their own best health interest? For example, are there ways to increase the value of smaller food portions? Similarly, restaurants could help consumers by providing choices that would include not only healthier alternatives but also information that would allow informed choices and even incentives for choosing the healthier alternatives. As a beginning, restaurants regardless of type could offer better choices on the menu and tips for modifying existing choices to make them healthier or lower in calories.”

In my opinion, I believe that exercise and nutrition are key for optimal health, but being OCD about it is just as unhealthy as eating a Triple Whopper with cheese and bacon while sitting on the couch watching TV. All things in moderation! I think that if everyone ate the minimum amount of recommended foods and nutrients, and exercised at least 30 minutes a day, we would all be in better shape. But let’s face it, you can’t make someone do something they don’t want to. That being said, there will always be obese people because not everyone wants to go to the gym or walk everywhere, not everyone likes fruits and veggies, and some people have medical problems that make it hard or even impossible to exercise on a daily basis and eat all of the required foods. So, yes, exercise is important, but no, it’s not over rated.

Dog on Bike Pic http://kecute.files.wordpress.com/2007/09/dogbike.jpg
Kids Health http://kidshealth.org/teen/your_body/take_care/exercise_wise.html
The Scottish Government Publications http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Publications/2006/10/31091850/5
James O. Hill, Holly R. Wyatt, and John C. Peters http://www.ehponline.org/docs/2005/7812/7812.html

Unit 3 Lab- Movable Limb

2008-07-10T11:05:00.005-07:00

The purpose of this lab was to show how impulses through neurons stimulate movement of muscles and bones, specifically a joint. For my model, I chose to use the following materials: homemade Play- Dough, acrylic paint, and black poster board.

First, I started by assembling the limb joint. I chose a knee joint. I formed the Femur, Tibia, Fibula, and Patella, and then joined them with the Anterior Cruciate Ligament, the Posterior Cruciate Ligament, the Lateral Collateral Ligament, and the Medial Collateral Ligament (shown in blue).

Then, I started to add in the muscles and tendons. I painted each of the muscles red with pink accents, and all of the tendons white.

Then I bent the leg and showed the slight change in muscle contraction.

For the next part of the lab, I made two models of Muscle Fiber. The first one is of a relaxed Sarcomere, and the second of a contracted Sarcomere.

And last but not least, I made a model of a Neuron and the nerve impulse. It shows how the charge changes with the entering of Na+ and the exiting of K+ in the axon of the Neuron.

Through this lab, I better understand how an impulse initiates muscle movement. The neuron gets an impulse from the CNS which travels down the axon. The impulse causes the polarity of the axon to change through the exchange of Sodium and Potassium. When the impulse reaches the muscle, Acetylcholine is released into the synaptic cleft and binds to the ACh receptors. The impulse then travels down the T system of the muscle fiber, causing the muscle to contract. In the muscle fiber, Calcium binds to Troponin, exposing Myosin binding sites on the Actin. When the Myosin head is unattached, it hydrolyzes ATP. ADP + P are bound to the Myosin as the Myosin head attaches to the Actin. When the ADP + P release, a power stroke occurs, causing the head to bend and pull the Actin in toward itself. And lastly, the binding of fresh ATP causes the Myosin head to return to its resting position, causing the muscle to relax. And that is how a muscle contracts and relaxes when you bend at a joint.

Unit 3 Lab 2- Movement

2008-07-08T16:18:00.004-07:00

http://www.athleticquickness.com/images/sce/muscle_chart.jpg

http://www.ivy-rose.co.uk/Topics/Muscles/Sliding-Filament_Theory.jpg

The purpose of this lab is to observe the characteristics of muscle contraction and then investigate the effects of two factors - temperature and fatigue - on the action of your muscles.

First, I tested the effects of cold on the muscles. I recorded how many times I could make a fist in 20 seconds. Then, I submerged my forearm in ice cold water and repeated the first step.

# of fists in 20 seconds- 46
# of fists in 20 seconds after cold water- 40

Then, for the second part of the lab, I tested the effects of fatigue. The lab said to use a rubber ball or a clothespin, but I don’t own either, so I used one of my son’s bath toys, a little soft rubber octopus. I squeezed the octopus for 20 seconds and repeated it 9 more times, for a total of ten trials, without taking a break in between.

1. 50
2. 54
3. 38
4. 33
5. 31
6. 29
7. 29
8. 26
9. 21
10. 20

What are the three changes you observed in a muscle while it is working (contracted)?
I noticed that it grew larger in size, tension increased with repetitions, after the seventh trial, my muscles started to burn and ache.

What effect did the cold temperature have on the action of your hand muscles? Explain.
The cold water caused my muscles to constrict, making it harder to open and close my hand. When the muscles get cold, they constrict to produce heat in attempts to raise the body temperature and maintain homeostasis.

What effect did the fatigue have on the action of your hand muscles? Explain.
Fatiguing my muscles also caused them to constrict. Arm muscles contain Fast- Twitch muscle fibers. They rely on an anaerobic means of acquiring ATP, provide explosions of energy, and can develop maximum tension more rapidly than slow- twitch muscle fibers. However, because they use an anaerobic means of acquiring ATP, it leaves them vulnerable to an accumulation of Lactate, causing them to fatigue quickly.

Unit 3 Lab 1- Leeches

2008-07-07T17:04:00.005-07:00

Manipulator w/ Oscillope trace

UV image

1. What is the electrode measuring?

The electrical current in the neuron. Voltage against time.

2. Why use leeches in neurophysiology experiments?

They have a simple nervous system, which obey many of the samerules as complex ones like ours, so discoveries in simple systemsmay help us to better understand ourselves.

3. What is the difference between a sensory and a motor neuron?

A sensory neuron takes the impulse from the receptors to the CNS,and a motor neuron takes the impulse from the CNS to the effectors(muscles or glands).

4. Do you think a leech experiences pain? What is pain?

I think all things experience pain. Pain is a typical sensory experience that may be described as the unpleasant awareness of a noxious stimulus or bodily harm.

5. What were the two most interesting things about doing this lab?

The information about the leaches, and finding the neuron.

6. Anything you found confusing or didn't like about the lab?

I found the lab quite boring. Interesting, but boring.

Unit 3 Compendium 2 pictures

2008-07-07T15:50:00.011-07:00

Skeletal System

Bone Growth

Axial Skeleton

Appendicular Skeleton

Muscular System

Muscle Fiber Contraction

Muscle Contraction

Skeletal System http://www.encognitive.com/images/skeletal-system.jpg
Bone Growth http://www.web-books.com/eLibrary/Medicine/Physiology/Skeletal/bone_growth.jpg
Axial Skeleton http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Axial_skeleton_diagram_fr.svg/418px-Axial_skeleton_diagram_fr.svg.png
Appendicular Skeleton http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Appendicular_skeleton_diagram.svg/220px-Appendicular_skeleton_diagram.svg.png
Muscular System http://porziochiropracticcenter.com/yahoo_site_admin/assets/images/Muscular_System.13755816_std.jpg Muscle Fiber Contraction http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Sarcomere.svg/400px-Sarcomere.svg.png
Whole Muscle Contraction http://www.octc.kctcs.edu/GCaplan/anat/images/Image331.gif

Unit 3. Compendium 2- Movement

2008-07-07T14:30:00.002-07:00

Table of Contents
I. Skeletal System
A. Overview of the Skeletal System
B. Bone Growth, Remodeling, and Repair
C. Bones of the Axial Skeleton
D. Bones of the Appendicular Skeleton
E. Articulations
II. Muscular System
A. Overview of the Muscular System
B. Skeletal Muscle Fiber Contraction
C. Whole Muscle Contraction
D. Muscular Disorders
E. Homeostasis

I. Skeletal System
A. Overview of the Skeletal System
1. Functions of the Skeletal System
a. Supports and protacts the body
b. Produces blood cells
c. Stores mineral salts, particularly calcium phosphate, and fat
d. Along with the muscles, permits flexible body movement
2. The bones of the skeleton are composed of bone tissues and cartilage. Ligaments composed of fibrous connective tissue connect bones at joints. In a long bone:
a.Hyaline cartilage covers the ends of a long bone
b. Perioteum (fibrous connective tissue) covers the rest of the bone
c. Spongy bone (containing red bone marrow) is in the epiphyses
d. Yellow bone marrow is in the medullary cavity of the diaphysis
e. Compact bone makes up the wall of the diaphysis
B. Bone Growth, Remodeling, and Repair
1. Cells involved in growth, remodeling, and bone repair are:
a. Osteoblasts- bone-forming cells
b. Osteocytes- mature bone cells derived from osteoblasts
c. Osteoclasts- break down and absorb bone
2. Bone Development and Growth
a. Intramembranous Ossification: bones develop between sheets of fibrous connective tissue (flat bones such as skull bones)
b. Endochondral Ossification: cartilaginous models of the bones are replaced by calcified bone matrix.
c. Bone growth is affected by vitamin d, growth hormone, and sex hormones
3. Bone remodeling and its role in Homeostasis
a. Bone Remodeling- the renewal of bone; Osteoclasts breakdown bone and osteoblasts re-form bone (some bone is recycled each year)
b. Bone recycling allows the body to regulate blood calcium
4. Bone Repair
a. Repair of a fracture requires four steps: Hematoma formation, Fibrocartilaginous callus, Boney callus, and then Healed Facture, or remodeling.
C. Bones of the Axial Skeleton
1. The axial skeleton consists of the skull, the hyoid bone, the vertibral column, and the rib cage.
a. Skull- formed by the cranium, which protects the brain and the facial bones.
b. Hyoid Bone- anchors the tongue and is the site of attachment of muscles involved with swallowing.
c. Vertebral Column- Composed of vertebrae separated by shock-absobing disks, which make the column flexible; supports the head and trunk, protects the spinal cord, and is a site for muscle attachment.
d. Rib Cage- composed of the thoracic vertebrae, ribs, costal cartilages, and the sternum; protects the heart and lungs.
D. Bones of the Appendicular Skeleton
1.The Appendicular skeleton consists of the thones of the pectoral girdles, upper limbs, pelvic girdle, and lower limbs.
a. Pectoral girdles and upper limbs are adapted for flexability.
a1. Pectoral Girdle- provides support and attachment for an arm; consists of a scapula and a clavicle.
b. The pelvic girdle and lower limbs are adapted for supporting weight; the femur is the longest and strongest bone in the body.
b1. Pelvic Girdle- portion of the skeleton to which the legs are attached; consists of the coxal bones.
E. Articulations
1. Bones are joined at joints, of which there are three types:
a. Fibrous Joints (such as the sutures of the cranium) are immovable.
b. Cartilaginous Joints (such as those between the ribs and sternum and the pubic symphysis) are slightly movable.
c. Synovial Joints (which have a synovial membrane) are freely movable.
II. Muscular System
A. Overview of the Muscular System
1. Three types of muscle tissue:
a. Smooth- involuntary and is found in the walls of the intestines
b. Cardiac- involuntary and is found in the walls of the heart
c. Skeletal- voluntary, contains bundles of muscle fibers called fascicles, and is usually attached by tendons to bones.
2. Skeletal muscle functions:
a. Helps maintain posture
b. Provides movement and heat
c. protects underlying organs
3. When achieving movement, some muscles are prime movers, some synergists, and others antagonists.
4. Muscles are named for their size, shape, location, direction of fibers, number of attachments, and action.
B. Skeletal Muscle Fiber Contraction
1. Muscle fibers contain myofibrils, which contain actin and myosin filaments
2. Muscle contraction occurs when sarcomeres shorten and actin filaments slide past myosin filaments.
C. Whole Muscle Contraction
1. Muscles have motor units
a. Contractions described in terms of a muscle twitch, summation, and tetanus
b. Motor units- several fibers under the control of a single motor axon
c. The strength of the contraction varies according to recruitment of motor units
d. A continuous slight tension (called muscle tone) is maintained by muscle motor units that take turns contracting
2. A muscle fiber has three ways to aquire ATP for muscle contraction:
a. Creatine phosphate transfers a phosphate to ADP, and ATP results.
b. Fermentation also produces ATP quickly; Fermentation is associated with an oxygen debt because oxygen is needed to metablize the lactate that accumulates.
c. Cellular respiration provides most of the muscles ATP, but takes longer because much of the glucose and oxygen must be transported in blood to mitochondria. Cellular respiration occurs during aerobic exercise and burns fatty acids in addition to glucose.
3. Fast-twitch and Slow-twitch muscle fibers
a. Fast-twitch Fibers: (for weight lifting) rely on an anaerobic means of aquiring ATP; have few mitochondria and myoglobin, but motor units contain more muscle fibers; are known for explosive power, but fatigue quickly.
b. Slow-twitch Fibers: (for swimming and running) rely on aerobic respiration to aquire ATP; have a plentiful supply of mitochondria and myoglobin, which give them a dark color.
D. Muscular Disorders
1. Common Conditions
a. Spasm- convulsion, cramp, facialtics
b. Strain
c. Sprain
d. Tendinitis
e. Bursitis
2. Muscular Diseases
a. Myalgia (achy muscles) and Fibromyalgia
b. Muscular Dystrophy (degeneration and weakening of muscles)
c. Myasthenia Gravis (autoimmune disease characterized by weakness in muscles of eyelids, face, neck, and extremities)
d. Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis- ALS, or Lou Gehrig's disease (gradual loss of the ability to walk, talk, chew, and swallow)
E. Homeostasis
1. The muscles and bones produce movement and protect body parts
2. The bones produce red blood cells and are involved in the regulation of blood calcium levels
3. The muscles produce the heat that gives us a constant body temperature.

Unit 3 Compendium 1 pictures

2008-07-07T14:18:00.013-07:00

Nervous System

Neuron

CNS

Limbic System

PNS

Drug Abuse

Sensory Receptors

Taste and Smell

The Eye

The Ear

Nervous System http://www.ashlandschools.org/morgan_cottle/body/nerve2.gif

Neuron http://scienceblogs.com/purepedantry/upload/2006/07/neuron.JPG
CNS http://www.drstandley.com/images/nervous5.bmp
Limbic System http://www.stanford.edu/group/hopes/basics/braintut/f_ab16limbic.gif
PNS http://trc.ucdavis.edu/biosci10v/bis10v/week10/spinalcord.gif
Drug Abuse http://www.gameth.com/Image/homepage.jpg
Sensory Receptors http://content.answers.com/main/content/img/oxford/Oxford_Sports/0199210896.reflex-arc.1.jpg
Taste and Smell http://www.38lemon.com/dailyjournal/Sensing%20Flavors.bmp
The Eye http://static.howstuffworks.com/gif/define-the-eyes-and-vision-1.jpg
The Ear http://www.hearingprofessionals.co.nz/Images/The-Human-Ear.gif

Unit 3 Compendium 1- Nervous Function

2008-07-07T12:40:00.002-07:00

Table of Contents
I. Nervous System
A. Overview of the Nervous System
B.The Central Nervous System
C. The Limbic System and Higher Mental Functions
D. The Peripheral Nervous System
E. Drug Abuse
II. Senses
A. Sensory Receptors and Sensations
B. Proprioceptors and Cutaneous Receptors
C. Senses of Taste and Smell
D. Sense of Vision
E. Sense of Hearing
F. Sense of Equilibrium

I. Nervous System
A. Overview of the Nervous System
1. The Nervous System is divided into two parts:
a. Central Nervous System (CNS)- Brain and Spinal Cord
b. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)- Nerves
2. The three main functions: recieves sensory input, performs integration, and generates motor output.
3. Nervous tissue contains two types of cells:
a. Neurons- transmit nerve impulses
b. Neuroglia- nourish and support neurons
4. A neuron is composed of a cell body, dendrites, and an axon. There are three types of neurons:
a. Sensory- take nerve impulses from sensory receptors to the CNS.
b. Interneurons- recieve input from sensory neurons and other interneurons within the CNS
c. Motor- take nerve impulses from the CNS to effectors (muscles or glands)
5. Myelin Sheath- covering formed by a type of neuroglia called Schwann Cells, which contain myelin (a lipid substance) in their plasma membrane.
6. Nerve Impulses convey information within the nervous system
a. Resting Potential- more Na+ outside the axon and more K+ inside the axon. The axon doesn't conduct an impulse.
b. Action Potential- a change in polarity across the axonal membrane as a nerve impulse occurs: When Na+ gates open,Na+ moves to the inside of the axon, and a depolarization occurs. When K+ gates open and K+ moves to the outside of the axon, a repolarization occurs.
7. Synapse- the junction between neurons consisting of the presynaptic (axon) membrane, the synaptic cleft, and the postsynaptic (usually dendrite) membrane.
a. When a neurotransmitter is released into a synaptic cleft, transmission of a nerve impulse occurs.
b. Binding of the neurotransmitter to receptors in the recieving membrane causes excitation or inhibition.
c. Integration is the summing of excitatory and inhibitory signals.
B. The Central Nervous System (CNS) recieves and integrates sensory input and formulates motor output. The CNS consists of the spinal cord and the brain.
1. Spinal Cord- the nerve cord that is continuous with the base of the brain plus the vertibral column that protects the nerve cord.
a. Gray matter of the spinal cord contains neuron cell bodies.
b. White matter consists of myelinated axons that occur in tracts.
c. Conduction to and from the brain; carries out reflex actions.
2. The Brain- enlarged superior portion of the CNS located in the cranial cavity of the skull.
a. Cerebrum- has two cerebral hemispheres connected by the corpus callosum.
a1. Sensation, reasoning, learning and memory, and language and speech take place in the cerebrum.
a2. The cerebral cortex covers the cerebrum. The cerebral cortex of each cerebral hemisphere has four lobes: frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal.
a3. The primary motor area in the frontal lobe sends out motor commands to lower brain centers, which pass them on to motor neurons.
a4. The primary somatosensory area in the parietal lobe recieves sensory information from the lower brain centers in communication with sensory neurons.
a5. Association areas are located in all of the lobes.
b. The Diencephalon- the hypothalamus controls homeostasis; the thalamus sends sensory input on to the cerebrum.
c. The Cerebellum- coordinates skeletal muscle contractions.
d. The Brain Stem- the medulla oblongata and the pons have centers for breathing and the heartbeat.
C. The Limbic System and Higher Mental Functions
1. The limbic system lying deep in the brain is involved in determining emotions.
2. The amygdala determines when a situation deserves the emotion of fear.
3. The hippocampus is particularly involved in storing and retrieving memories.
a. Short Term Memory- retention of information for only a few minutes, such as remembering a phone number.
b. Long Term Memory- retention of information that lasts longer than a few minutes.
c. Semantic Memory- capacity of the brain to store and retrieve information with regard to words and numbers.
d. Episodic Memory- capacity of the brain to store and retrieve information with regard to persons and events.
e. Skill Memory- involved in performing motor activities such as riding a bike or playing hockey.
D. The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
1. The PNS contains only nerves and ganglia.
2. Cranial Nerves take impulses to and from the brain.
3. Spinal Nerves take impulses to and from the spinal cord.
4. The PNS is divided into the Somatic System and the Autonomic System.
a. Somatic System- serves the skin, skeletal muscles, and tendons.
a1. Some actions are due to reflexes, which are automatic and involuntary.
a2. Other actions are voluntary; originate in the cerebral cortex.
b. Autonomic System- the two divisions in this system are the Sympathetic division (responses that occur during thimes of stress) and the Parasympathetic division (responses that occur during times of relaxation).
b1. Actions in these divisions are involuntary and automatic.
b2. These divisions innervate internal organs.
b3. Two neurons and one ganglion are utilized for each impulse.
E. Drug Abuse
1. Neurological drugs either promote or prevent the action of a particular neurotransmitter.
a. Alcohol, Nicotine, Cocaine, Methamphetamine, Heroin, Marijuana, etc.
2. Dependancy occurs when the body compensates for the presence of neurological drugs.
II. Senses
A. Sensory Receptors and Sensations.
1. There are four types of sensory receptors:
a. Chemoreceptors- sensory receptor that is sensitive to chemical stimuli (taste and smell)
b. Photoreceptors- sensory receptor in the retina that responds to light stimuli
c. Mechanoreceptors- sensory receptor that responds to mechanical stimuli (pressure, sound waves, gravity)
d. Thermoreceptors- sensory receptor that is sensitive to changes in temperature
2. Sensory receptors initiate nerve impulses that are transmitted to the spinal cord and/or brain
3. Sensation occurs when nerve impulses reach the cerebral cortex
4. Perception is an interpretation of sensations
B. Proprioceptors and Cutaneous Receptors
1. Proprioceptors- mechanoreceptors involved in reflex actions; help maintain equilibrium and posture.
2. Cutaneous Receptors- sense touch, pressure, temperature, and pain; found in the skin.
C.Senses of Taste and Smell
1. Taste and smell are due to chemoreceptors that are stimulated by molecules in the environment.
a. Sense of taste- microvilli of taste cells have receptor proteins for molecules that cause the brain to distinguish sweet, sour, salty, and bitter tastes.
b. Sense of smell- the cilia of the olfactory cells have receptor proteins for molecules that cause the brain to distinguish odors.
D. Sense of Vision
1. Vision depends on the eye, the optic nerves, and the visual areas of the cerebral cortex.
2. Anatomy and Physiology of the Eye
a. The sclera (outer layer) protects and supports the eyeball
b. The choroid (middle, pigment layer) absorbs stray light rays
c. The retina (inner layer) contains the rod cells (sensory receptors for dim light) and cone cells (sensory receptors for bright light and color).
d. Function of the Lens- the lens, assisted by the cornea and the humor, brings the light rays to focus on the retina. To see an object up close, visual accommodation occurs as the lens rounds up.
e. Visual Pathway to the Brain- the visual pathway begins when light strikes photoreceptors (rod cells and cone cells) in the retina. The optic nerves carry nerve impulses from the eyes to the optic chiasma, then pass through the thalamus before reaching the primary vision area in the optical lobe of the brain.
3. Abnormalities of the Eye
a. Color Blindness
b. Misshapen eyeballs- cause of nearsightedness, farsightedness, and astigmatism.
E. Sense of Hearing
1. Hearing depends on the ear, the cochlear nerve, and the auditory areas of the cerebral cortex.
2. Anatomy and Physiology of the Ear
a. In the outer ear, the pinna and the auditory canal direct sound waves to the middle ear.
b. In the middle ear, the tympanic membrane and the ossicles (malleus, incus, and stapes) amplify sound waves.
c. In the inner ear, the semicircular canals detect rotational equilibrium; the utricle and saccule detect gravitational equilibrium; and the cochlea houses the spiral organ, which contains mechanorecepting for hearing.
d. Auditory Pathway to the Brain- begins when the outer ear recieves and the middle ear amplifies sound waves that then strike the oval window membrane.
e. The mechanoreceptors for hearing are hair cells on the basilar membrane of the spiral organ.
f. Nerve impulses begin in the cochlear nerve and are carried to the primary auditory area in the temporal lobe of the cerebral cortex.
F. Sense of Equilibrium
1. The ear also contains mechanoreceptors for equilibrium
a. Rotational Equilibrium Pathway- mechanoreceptors (hair cells) in the semicircular canals detect rotational and/or angular movement of the head.
b. Gravitational Equilibrium Pathway- mechanoreceptors (hair cells) in the utricle and saccule detect head movement in the vertical or horizontal planes.

Self/ Unit Eval- Unit 2

2008-06-27T21:58:00.004-07:00

Self
1. What were the three aspects of the assignments I've submitted that I am most proud of?

My work was much better this time, my posting is getting done on a regular basis, and my Compendiums have table of contents =)

2. What two aspects of my submitted assignments do I believe could have used some improvement?

My photo captions not being all kerfunked, and my choice of pictures perhaps.

3. What do I believe my overall grade should be for this unit?

I'd have to say either a high B or a low A like last time.

4. How could I perform better in the next unit?

Take all my not so good things and fix them.

Unit
1. At what moment during this unit did you feel most engaged with the course?

During the first part. I like the heart! It's probably my favorite organ in the body.

2. At what moment during this unit did you feel most distanced from the course?

During the Nutrition part. It's hard for me to read about a lot of the stuff on obese people, because it seems like they stereotype all obese people as being lazy junk food eaters. But we're not all like that.

3. What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit did you find most affirming and helpful?

The powerpoints were awesome for this unit. They were just like the last unit, but for some reason they helped more this time.

4. What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit did you find most puzzling or confusing?

To be totally honest, nothing. This unit was very simple and not confusing or puzzling at all.

5. What about this unit surprised you the most? (This could be something about your own reactions to the course, something that someone did, or anything else that occurs to you.)

This unit, the nutrition portion, made me curious enough to step on the scale. The last time I was on a scale, I had just gained 30 pounds... very depressing. But I am inching myself closer and closer to the 200 mark, and I am so happy!

Unit 2 Lab Pictures

2008-06-27T21:34:00.005-07:00

Electronic BP Cuff

One of the readings

Have to feed the chickens

And the horses too

Can't forget to water the flowers

or the garden

This was going to be dinner

And this is Steven eating a cookie

Unit 2 Lab- Exercise Physiology

2008-06-27T17:43:00.004-07:00

Unit 2 Lab Project: Exercise Physiology

The objective of this lab was to measure basic body metabolic parameters- pulse, respiration, and blood pressure- at rest and doing various activities. For my activities, I chose things I do on a daily basis. Taking care of my 5 month old, eating, and doing chores.

*My Hypothesis: I think that taking care of the baby will raise my pulse, respiration, and blood pressure. Eating will raise my pulse and blood pressure, but not my respiration. And, doing chores will raise my pulse, respiration, and blood pressure.

*My Materials: To measure my pulse and blood pressure, I used an electronic blood pressure cuff. To measure my respiratory rate, I used my watch to see when 30 seconds had passed, and I counted breaths in my head. (Also see pictures)

*My Data:

*Analysis of Data: My hypothesis was correct. Taking care of the
baby raised my pulse, respiration, and blood pressure, eating raised my pulse and blood pressure, but not my respiration, and doing chores raised my pulse, respiration, and blood pressure.

*Conclusion: I can now say that the metabolic parameters will increase with an increase in physical activity. I can also say that eating will cause your blood pressure and pulse to increase, most likely because your digestive system is breaking down the food and fueling the rest of the body.

Unit 2 Ethical Issue Essay- What is Food?

2008-06-27T17:41:00.001-07:00

What is Food?

As an Obese person, this topic really hit home. What is food? Is it just what we consume, or is it what we get from consuming? Is it fresh? Is it processed? Is it neither? What is food? I did a little research and have found three articles that caught my eye. One is from Mr. Michael Pollan, from Times Magazine, an article from LE Magazine, and lastly, the definition of food from Wikipedia, the free online encyclopedia.

In Michael Pollan’s January 28, 2007 article in The Times Magazine, he says “A little meat won’t kill you, though it’s better approached as a side dish than as a main. And you’re much better off eating whole fresh foods than processed food products. That’s what I mean by the recommendation to eat “food.” Once, food was all you could eat, but today there are lots of other edible food like substances in the supermarket. These novel products of food science often come in packages festooned with health claims, which brings me to a related rule of thumb: if you’re concerned about your health, you should probably avoid food products that make health claims. Why? Because a health claim on a food product is a good indication that it’s not really food, and food is what you want to eat.” But what if what you were eating the food for was not what you were getting?

I found this article from the March 2001 edition of LE Magazine particularly interesting. “Imagine the surprise of going online and discovering that the vitamin and mineral content of vegetables has drastically dropped.
That’s what happened to nutritionist, Alex Jack, when he went to check out the latest US Department of Agriculture food tables. The stunning revelation came after Jack compared recently published nutrient values with an old USDA handbook he had lying around. Some of the differences in vitamin and mineral content were enormous-a 50% drop in the amount of calcium in broccoli, for example. Watercress down 88% in iron content; cauliflower down 40% in vitamin C content-all since 1975.
Jack took his findings to the USDA, hoping for a reasonable explanation. That was two years ago. He’s still waiting. So is Organic Gardening magazine, which published an open letter, seeking an explanation from Dan Glickman, Secretary of Agriculture. Glickman didn’t respond, but USDA employee, Phyllis E. Johnson did. Johnson (who is head of the Beltsville area office), suggested to Organic Gardening that the nutrient drain should be put in context. According to her, the 78% decrease in calcium content of corn is not significant because no one eats corn for calcium. She further explains that the problem may not even exist at all; that the apparent nutrient dips could be due to the testing procedures. For example, “changes in the public’s perception of what the edible portion is may determine what parts have been analyzed over time.” In other words, back when the old food tables were made up, people may have been eating the cob too, so they got more nutrients.
We decided to look into this further. Jack had used a 1975 version of the food tables for his research. We dredged up a 1963 version. After comparing the nutrient values for over a dozen fruits and vegetables, it was clear that the nutrient value of many foods has dropped, in some cases drastically. For example, the amount of vitamin C in sweet peppers has plummeted from 128 mg to 89 mg.= The vitamin A in apples has dropped from 90 mg to 53 mg. The fall-offs seem to be limited mostly to vegetables, and some fruits.
Some vegetables appear to be gaining vitamins-at least vitamin A. Carrots, for example, have more of the vitamin now than they did in 1963. Why is a mystery. But the phenomenon has apparently occurred just in the nick of time. The National Academy of Sciences has issued an alert that it takes twice as many vegetables to get the daily requirement of vitamin A as previously thought. Carrots and pumpkin are exempt from the caveat.
Despite the apparent increase of vitamin A in carrots, most vegetables are losing their vitamins and minerals. Nearly half the calcium and vitamin A in broccoli, for example, have disappeared. Collards are not the greens they used to be. If you're eating them for minerals and vitamin A, be aware that the vitamin A content has fallen from 6500 IUs to 3800 IUs. Their potassium has dropped from 400 mg to 170 mg. Magnesium has fallen sharply-57 mg to 9. Cauliflower has lost almost half its vitamin C, along with its thiamin and riboflavin. Most of the calcium in pineapple is gone-from 17 mg (per 100 grams raw) to 7. And the list goes on and on.”

According to Wikipedia, “Food is any substance, usually composed primarily of carbohydrates, fats, water and/or proteins, that can be eaten or drunk by an animal for nutrition or pleasure. Items considered food may be sourced from plants, animals or other categories such as fungus or fermented products like alcohol. Although many human cultures sought food items through hunting and gathering, today most cultures use farming, ranching, and fishing, with hunting, foraging and other methods of a local nature included but playing a minor role.
Most traditions have a recognizable cuisine, a specific set of cooking traditions, preferences, and practices, the study of which is known as gastronomy. Many cultures have diversified their foods by means of preparation, cooking methods and manufacturing. This also includes a complex food trade which helps the cultures to economically survive by-way-of food, not just by consumption.
Many cultures study the dietary analysis of food habits. While humans are omnivores, religion and social constructs such as morality often affect which foods they will consume. Food safety is also a concern with food borne illness claiming many lives each year. In many languages, food is often used metaphorically or figuratively, as in "food for thought".
Between the extremes of optimal health and death from starvation or malnutrition, there is an array of disease states that can be caused or alleviated by changes in diet. Deficiencies, excesses and imbalances in diet can produce negative impacts on health, which may lead to diseases such as scurvy, obesity or osteoporosis, as well as psychological and behavioral problems. The science of nutrition attempts to understand how and why specific dietary aspects influence health.”

To me, food is both the sustenance and the nutrients, and when you combine things in the right order, getting in the recommended amount of grains, fruits, veggies, dairy, meats, fats, and sugars, you get a well balanced meal. Balanced meals are important in maintaining a healthy body, mind, and soul. But for a lot of us, eating balanced meals is hard. We are often tempted to eat “junk food” rather than the healthier option, mostly because it is faster to open a bag of chips then to wash and cut up an apple.

So, what is food? Food is any substance that can be eaten or drunk. Not all food is good for you, and some of what is, doesn’t have the nutrients that it used to. But the most important thing to remember about food is, that food is all around us and it’s our choice what we eat.

MICHAEL POLLAN The Times Magazine Published: January 28, 2007
http://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/28/magazine/28nutritionism.t.html?ex=1327640400&en=7c85a1c254546157&ei=5088&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss

LE Magazine March 2001 http://www.soilandhealth.org/06clipfile/0601.LEMag/LE%20Magazine%2C%20March%202001%20-%20Report%20Vegetables%20Without%20Vitamins.htm

Wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food

Unit 2 Lab 2- A day of food

2008-06-26T15:09:00.003-07:00

My results showed that yesterday, I intook 1500 calories.

-How healthy a daily diet do you think this is? Why?

Not incredibly healthy, but not incredibly bad either. I include food from all food groups, but not in the proportions I should.

-What would you change about this day's eating, if anything?

I would include more veggies and dairy into my diet, and eat less sweets.

-Do you find this kind of nutritional tracking helpful? Why or why not?

Yes and no. It's good to see how good or bad I am eating, but if it's too bad, I'll feel guilty and stress eat.

Unit 2 Compendium 2 pictures

2008-06-26T13:18:00.010-07:00

Digestive System

Mouth, Pharynx, and Esophagus

Stomach and Small Intestine

Three Accessory Organs

Large Intestine

Obesity

Referense Daily Intake (RDI) for Vitamins and Minerals

The New Food Pyramid

Digestive System http://www.freewebs.com/digestive-system/Digestive%20System%20Pictures/digest.gif

Mouth, Pharynx, and Esophagus http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/images/ency/fullsize/1118.jpg

Stomach and Small Intestine http://www.geocities.com/aids_holisticspng/stomach_smallintestine.jpg

Accessory Organs http://www.med.umich.edu/1libr/aha/livergal.gif

Large Intestine http://ae.medseek.com/bguide/reftext/images/LargeIntestine.jpg

Obesity http://img.dailymail.co.uk/i/pix/2007/10_03/obeseG1610_468x306.jpg

RDI Vitamins & Minerals http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/foodsci/ext/pubs/Ag-503/tab2.gif

Food Pyramid http://www.thefeltsource.com/New-Food-Pyramid-Large.jpg

Unit 2 Compendium 2- Digestive System and Nutrition

2008-06-25T16:06:00.002-07:00

Table of Contents
I. Overview Of Digestion
II. The First Part of the Digestive Tract
III. The Stomach and Small Intestine
IV. Three Accessory Organs and Regulation of Secretions
V.The Large Intestine and Defecation
VI. Nutrition and Weight Control

I. Overview of Digestion
A. Ingestion- occurs when the mouth takes in food.
1. Mouth- teeth chew food, tongue tastes and pushes food, for chewing and swallowing.
2. Salivary Glands- secret saliva which contains a digestive enzyme for carbohydrates.
3. Pharnyx- passageway where food is swallowed.
4. Esophagus- passageway where peristalsis pushes food to stomach.
B. Digestion- Mechanical and Chemical- breakdown of large nutrient molecules into smaller molecules that can be absorbed.
1. Mechanical Digestion- occurs when food is divided into pieces that can be acted on by the digestive enzymes; occurs primarily in the mouth and stomach.
2. Chemical Digestion- begins in the mouth and is not completed until food reaches the small intestine; produces chyme (thick semifluid mass of partly digested food that is passed from the stomach to the small intestine).
a. Stomach- secretes acid and digestive enzyme for protein; churns, mixing food with secretions, and sends chyme to the small intestine.
b. Liver- major metabolic organ- processes and stores nutrients and produces bile for emulsification of fats.
c. Gallbladder- stores bile from liver and sends it to the small intestine.
d. Pancreas- produces pancreatic juice that contains digestive enzymes, and sends it to the small intestine; produces insulin and secretes it into the blood after eating.
C.Movement- GI tract contents moving along the digestive tract is very important. In order for the tract to fulfill it's other functions, movement must occur.
D. Absorbtion- occurs as unit molecules, produced by digestion, cross the wall of the GI tract, enter the cells lining the tract, and then the nutrients enter the blood for delivery to the cells.
1. Small Intestine- mixes chyme with digestive enzymes for final breakdown; absorbs nutrient molecules into the body; secretes digestive hormones into the blood.
2. Large Intestine- absorbs water and salt to form feces.
E. Elimination- the removal of indigestable wastes through the anus, in the form of feces, by defecation.
1. Rectum- stores and regulates elimination of feces.
2. Anus- outlet of the digestive tract.
F. Wall of the digestive Tract
1. Lumen- the central space that contains water/food being digested.
2. Mucosa- inner mucous membrane layer that is modified according to the digestive organ.
3. Submucosa- broad band of loose connective tissue that contains nerves, blood, and lymphatic vessels.
4. Muscularis- two layers of smooth muscle.
5. Serosa- thin, outermost tissue that is the visceral peritoneum.

II. The First Part of the Digestive Tract
A. The Mouth- recieves food and begins mechanical and chemical digestion.
1. Componants- hard palate, soft palate, uvula, tonsils, salivary glands, tongue, and teeth.
2. The teeth chew the food and break it down for digestion, and the tongue pushes it toward the throat.
a. Teeth- 8 incisors, 4 canines, 8 premolars, and 12 molars.
B. The Pharnyx and Esophagus
1. When you swallow food, the tongue pushes the bolus of food up against the soft palate, which closes of the pharnyx. The epiglottis closes off the glottis so that food enters the esophagus and not the lungs.
2. Peristalsis, a rythmic contraction, pushes the bolus down through the esophagus until it hits the lower esophageal spincter, which relaxes, and the food enters the stomach.

III. The Stomach and Small Intestine
A. The stomach expands and stores food, and then churns, mixing it with the acidic gastric juices.
1. Gastric juices contain pepsin, an enzyme that digests protein.
B. Duodenum- recieves bile from the liver and the pancreatic juice from the pancreas.
1. Bile- emulsifies fat and readies it for digestion by lipase.
C. Pancreas- produces enzymes that digest starch, protein, and fat.
1. Pancreatic Amylase- digests starch.
2. Trypsin- digests protein.
3. Lipase- digests fat.
4. The intestinal enzymes finish the process of chemical digestion.
D. Small nutrient molecules are absorbed at the villi in the small intestine walls.

IV. Three Accessory Organs and Regulation of Secretions
A. Three accessory organs of digestion send secretions to the duodenum via ducts. The three organs are the pancreas, liver, and gallbladder.
1. Pancreas- produces pancreatic juice, which contains digestive enzymes for carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.
2. Liver- produces bile, destroys old blood cells, detoxifies blood, stores iron, makes plasma proteins, stores glucose as glycogen, breaks down glycogen to glucose, produces urea, and helps regulate blood cholesterol levels.
3. Gallbladder- stores bile, which is produced by the liver.
B. The secretions of digestive juices are controlled by the nervous system and by hormones.
1. Gastrin- produced by the lower part of the stomach, stimulating, via the bloodstream, the upper part of the stomach to secrete pepsin.
2. Secretin and CCK- produced by the duodenal wall, stimulating the pancreas to secrete juices, and the gallbladder to release bile.

V. The Large Intestine and Defecation
A. Large Intestine
1. Consists of the cecum, the colon (ascending, transverse, and descending), and the rectum.
2. Absorbs water, salts, and some vitamins, forms feces, and carries out defecation.
B. Defecation- discharge of feces from the rectum through the anus.
C. Disorders of the Large Intestine
1. Diverticulosis, Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS), Inflammatory Bowel Disease, Polyps, and Colon Cancer.

VI. Nutrition and Weight Control
A. Obesity- being grossly overweight; defined by body mass index (BMI).
1. Healthy BMI- 19.1 to 26.4; Overweight BMI- 26.5 to 31.1; Obese BMI- 32.3 to 39.9; Morbidly Obese BMI- 40 or more.
B. Classes of Nutrients
1. Nutrient- a componant of food that performs a physiological function in the body.
a. Carbohydrates- the preferred energy source for the body, but select carbohydrates in whole grains, beans, nuts, and fruits, contain fiber, vitamins, and minerals in addition to carbohydrates.
b. Proteins- sufficient proteins are needed to supply the essential amino acids. Meat and dairy sources of protein may supply unwanted saturated fat, but vegetable sources do not.
c. Lipids- Unsaturated fats, such as those in oils, do not lead to cardiovascular disease and are preferred. Fats and oils contain many more calories per gram than do carbohydrates and protein.
d. Minerals- major and trace- the body contains more than 5 grams of each major mineral, and less than 5 grams of each trace mineral.
d1. Major: Calcium (Ca²+), Phosphorus (PO4³-), Potassium (K+), Sulfur (S²-), Sodium (Na+), Chloride (Cl-), and Magnesium (Mg²+).
d2. Trace: Zinc (Zn²+), Iron (Fe²+), Copper (Cu²+), Iodine (I-), Selenium (SeO4²-), and Manganese (Mn²+).
e. Vitamins- organic compounds (other than carbohydrate, fat, and protein) that the body uses for metabolic purposes, but is unable to produce in adequate quantity.
e1. Fat- soluble: Vitamin A, D, E, and K.
e2. Water- soluble: Vitamin C, Thiamine (B1), Riboflavin (B2), Niacin (Nicotinic Acid), Folacin (Folic Acid), B6, Pantothenic Acid, B12, and Biotin.
C. How to Plan Nutritious Meals
1. Eat a variety of foods from all food groups.
a. Grains- 6 oz. daily
b. Vegetables- 2 ½ cups daily
c. Fruits- 2 cups daily
d. Dairy- 3 cups daily (Ages 2-8, 2 cups)
e. Meat and Beans- 5 ½ oz. daily
f. Oils- small amounts daily
D. Eating Disorders
1. Anorexia Nervosa- a severe psychological disorder characterized by an irrational fear of getting fat, that results in the refusal to eat enough food to maintain a healthy weight.
2. Bulimia Nervosa- eating disorder characterized by binge eating followed by purging, via self induced vomiting or use of a laxative.
3. Muscle Dysmorphia- mental state where a person thinks their body is underdeveloped, and becomes preoccupied with body- building and diet; affects more men than women.

Unit 2 Lab 1- Blood Pressure

2008-06-23T17:07:00.004-07:00

State a problem about the relationship of age and gender to blood pressure.

When it comes to blood pressure, age and gender don't necessarily have anything to do with whether the person will have hypertension. There's also family history to look at, and every person is different. However, it does increase with age because the heart works harder.

Use your knowledge about the heart and the circulatory system to make a hypothesis about how the average blood pressure for a group of people would be affected by manipulating the age and gender of the group members.

Younger people will not have as many with BP problems as the older will, and men will have more problems than women. Also, BP will increase with age.
How will you use the investigation screen to test your hypothesis? What steps will you follow?

What data will you record?

I will have people of different ages and different sexes, and will follow all steps and record all data for an accurate study.

Analyze the result of your experiment. Explain any patterns you observed.

My observations were just as I had hoped. The BP of an average male is higher than an average female. Also, there were more cases if hypertension among men than women.

Did the result of your experiment support your hypothesis? Why or why not? Based on your experiment what conclusion can you draw about the relationship of age and gender to group blood pressure averages?

Yes, my experiment did support my hypothesis. Based on my data, I have found that the blood pressure of an average male is higher than that of an average female. Also, there were more cases of Hypertension among men than women, especially in the 45- 54 age group. Therefore, a man, age 45- 54, has a better chance of having high blood pressure then a woman of the same age range. But, a male, age 18- 24, has less of a chance then the older women, and a younger woman less than the younger man.

During the course of your experiment, did you obtain any blood pressure reading that were outside of the normal range for the group being tested? What did you notice on the medical charts for these individuals that might explain their high reading?

Of the 100 people I examined, 7 males and 6 females had above normal blood pressure. Of those 13 people, 5 claimed they don't exercise much, if at all, 4 claimed they have a high salt diet, 4 claimed to have a family history, 3 claimed they consume alcohol, and 3 claimed they had none of the above.

List risk factors associated with the hypertension. Based on your observation, which risk factor do you think is most closely associated with hypertension?

*Lack of exercise- exercise is good for the heart because it's a muscle. The more out of shape you are, the more out of shape your heart is, and it has to work harder.
*High Salt diet- some salt is good, but too much can be bad for you.
*Alcohol consumption- Alcohol is not good for your liver, which is a filter.
*Family history- You can't stop history, but if you treat your body well, you can delay the inevitable.
I would say that the risk factor most closely associated with hypertension is lack of exercise.

What effect might obesity have on blood pressure? Does obesity alone cause a person to be at risk for high blood pressure? What other factors, in combination with obesity, might increase a person's risk for high blood pressure?

I would have to say that obesity would most likely raise the blood pressure. Obesity alone does not cause high blood pressure, but it definitely does increase the risk. Most obese people are that way because of their lack of exercise, high salt diets, and in some cases, alcohol consumption. There may also be a family history of high blood pressure, which is precisely why an at risk obese person should drop the weight. They may get it anyway, but dropping the weight may delay it or stop it all together.

Unit 2 Compendium 1 pictures

2008-06-23T16:24:00.004-07:00

Cardiovascular System

Blood Vessels

Flow of Blood Through the Heart

Blood Pressure

Exchange in the Capillaries

Artificial Heart

RBC,Platelet, and WBC

ABO Blood Type

Homeostasis

Microbes and Pathogens

Lymphatic System

T and B Cells

Allergies

HIV

HIV Phases

HIV Life Cycle

AIDS Cocktail

Cardiovascular System http://www.daviddarling.info/images/circulatory_system.jpg
Blood Vessels http://www.accessexcellence.org/AE/AEC/CC/images/vessel.gif
Blood Flow Through the Heart http://www.daviddarling.info/images/heart.gif
Blood Pressure http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/science/lifescience/generalbiology/Phisiology/CirculatorySystem/Circulatory System/Vertebrate/bloodvessels_3.gif
Capillary Exchange http://media-2.web.britannica.com/eb-media/37/92937-034.jpg
Artificial Heart http://dsc.discovery.com/news/2006/09/06/gallery/artificialheart_zoom.jpg
Blood Cells http://leavingbio.net/Bloob_files/image010.jpg
Blood Types http://blogsci.com/images/ABO_blood_type.jpg
Homeostasis http://ecodelink.com/images/081404/homeostasis2.jpg
Microbes and Pathogens http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v4/n3/images/nrg1019-f2.jpg
Lymphatic System http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Forum/6100/1lymphaticspic.gif
B and T Cells http://www.medscape.com/content/2002/00/44/43/444383/art-444383.fig1.jpg
Allergies http://z.about.com/d/firstaid/1/0/F/-/-/-/allergies.jpg
HIV http://www.niaid.nih.gov/daids/dtpdb/graphics/hiv.gif
HIV Phases http://www.nature.com/nrmicro/journal/v1/n3/images/nrmicro772-f2.jpg
HIV Life Cycle http://www.gladstone.ucsf.edu/gladstone/files/publicaffairs/HIVlifeCycle.gif
AIDS Cocktail http://wwwimage.cbsnews.com/images/2003/01/24/image537878x.jpg

Unit 2 Compendium 1- Maintenance of the Human Body

2008-06-23T12:10:00.002-07:00

Table of Contents

I. Cardiovascular System: Heart and Blood Vessels

A. Overview of the Cardiovascular System

B. The Types of Blood Vessels

C. The Heart is a Double Pump

D. Features of the Cardiovascular System

E. Two Cardiovascular Pathways

F. Exchange at the Capillaries

G. Cardiovascular Disorders

II. Cardiovascular System: Blood

A. Blood: An Overview

B. Red Blood Cells and Transport of Oxygen

C. White Blood Cells and Defense Against Disease

D. Platelets and Blood Clotting

E. Blood Typing and Transfusions

F. Homeostasis

III. Lymphatic System and Immunity

A. Microbes and Pathogens

B. The Lymphatic System

C. Nonspecific Defenses

D. Specific Defenses

E. Acquired Immunity

F. Hypersensitivity Reactions

IV. AIDS Supplement

A. Origin and Prevalence of HIV

B. Phases of an HIV Infection

C. HIV Structure and Life Cycle

I. Cardiovascular System: Heart and Blood Vessels

A. Overview of the Cardiovascular System

1. Contractions of the heart generates blood pressure, which moves blood through blood vessels.

2. Blood vessels transport blood, which moves from the heart into arteries, capillaries, and veins, before returning to the heart.

3. Exchanges at the capillaries (the smallest of the blood vessels) refreshes blood and then tissue fluid, sometimes called interstitial fluid.

4. The heart and blood vessels regulate blood flow, according to the needs of the body.

B. The Types of Blood Vessels

1. Arteries: blood flows from the heart to the body.

2. Capillaries: moves blood from the Arteries to the Veins.

3. Veins: blood flows from the body to the heart.

C. The Heart is a Double Pump

1. The heart has a right and left side, each having an Atrium and a Ventricle. Valves keep the blood moving in the correct direction.

2. Passage of blood through the heart.

a. The right atrium recieves O2 poor blood from the body, and the right ventricle pumps it into the lungs.

b. The left atrium recieves the O2 rich blood from the lungs, and the left ventricle pumps it to the rest of the body.

3. The heart beat is controlled.

a. The SA node initiates the heartbeat by causing the atria to contract, then the AV node conveys the stimulus to the ventricles, causing them to contract.

b. "Lub-Dub" is caused from the closing of the atrioventricular valves, followed by the closing of the semilunar valves.

D. Features of the Cardiovascular System.

1.Pulse- rythmic expansion and recoil of an atrial wall; felt at radial or carotid artery.

2. Blood Pressure- pressure of blood against the wall of a blood vessel.

a. Systolic pressure- Arterial blood pressure during the systolic phase of the cardiac cycle; ejection of blood from the heart.

b. Diastolic pressure- Arterial blood pressure during the diastolic phase of the cardiac cycle; relaxation of the heart ventricles.

E. Two Cardiovascular Pathways.

1. Pulmonary Circuit: Exchange of Gases- O2 poor blood leaves the heart through the pulmonary artery, exchanges CO2 for O2, and then travels back to the heart through the pulmonary vein.

2. Systemic Circuit: Exchanges with Tissue Fluid- 60,000 miles of veins and arteries.

a. Tracing the path of blood- Left Ventricle-> Aorta-> Common Iliac Artery-> Femoral Artery-> Lower Leg Capillaries-> Femoral Vein-> Common Iliac Vein-> Inferior Vena Cava-> Right Atrium.

b. Coronary Arteries- supply blood to the wall of the heart; connected to the Aorta.

Hepatic Portal Vein- takes blood from the capillary bed of the digestive tract to a capillary bed in the liver.

F. Exchange at the Capillaries.

1. Water, oxygen, amino acids, and glucose leave the capillary when there is more blood pressure and less osmotic pressure (on the artery side).

2. Carbon dioxide, wastes, and water enter the capillary when there is less blood pressure and more osmotic pressure (on the vein side).

G. Cardiovascular Disorders

1. Disorders of the blood vessels.

a. Aneurysm, High Blood Pressure (Hypertension), Low Blood Pressure (Hypotension), Atherosclerosis, Thrombus, Embolus, Thromboembolism, Plaque, Stroke, Heart Attack, Angina Pectoris, Blood Clots.

b. Treating Artery Disorders- Coronary Bypass Operation, dissolve blood clots using t-PA or a blood thinner, Angioplasty, Stents.

2.Disorders of the Heart.

a. Bicuspid or Tricuspid regurgitation, heart failure, Atrium Fibrilation (A-fib), Ventricular Fibrilation (V-fib).

b. Treatment of Heart Disorders- Heart transplant, artificial valves, pacemaker, artificial heart.

II. Cardiovascular System: Blood

A. Blood: An Overview

1. Functions- primary transport for O2 and CO2, defends the body against invasion by pathogens, and helps regulate body temperature through it'd pH.

2. Composition of Blood.

a. Formed Elements- Red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.

b. Plasma- plasma proteins, osmotic pressure, albumins, globulins, and fibrinogen.

B. Red Blood Cells and Transport of Oxygen.

1. Blood carries O2 through Hemoglobin (makes red blood cells red); The globin portion of the hemoglobin is a protein that contains 4 highly folded polypeptide chains, while the heme part of hemoglobin is an iron-containing group in the center of each polypeptide chain (iron accepts the O2 in the lungs and lets go of it in the tissue).

2. Blood transports CO2 through plasma- 7% is dissolved in the plasma, 25% is transported by the globin in the blood cell, and the left over 68% is transported as bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) in the plasma.

3. Red Blood Cells are produced in Bone Marrow.

a. Blood Doping- delivers O2 more efficiently and reduces fatigue- A low O2 blood level makes the kidneys increase production of erythropoietin, which makes the stem cells increase red blood cell production. Increase in RBC production makes the O2 level normal again.

4. Red blood cell disorders.

a. Anemia (low iron), Hemolysis (rupturing RBCs), Sickle-Cell Disease.

C. White Blood Cell and Defense Against Disease.

1. Types of WBCs: Granular and Agranular Leukocytes.

a. Granular Leukocytes- neutrophils, eosiniphils, and basophils. Neutrophils are abundant and respond to infections first. They phagocytize pathogens.

b. Agranular Leukocytes- monocytes and lymphocytes. Monocytes are the largest WBC and can become macrophages the phagocytize pathogens and cellular debris. Lymphocytes (B and T cells) are responsible for specific immunity.

D. Platelets and Blood Clotting.

1. When a blood vessel is puctured, platelets congregate and form a plug. Then platelets and damaged tissue cells release prothrombin activator, which initiates a cascade of enzymatic reactions (prothrombin to thrombin, and fibrinogen to fibrin threads). Finally, fibrin threads form and trap red blood cells.

2. Disorders related to blood clotting.

a. Thrombocytopenia (low platelet count), Thromboembolism (blood clot), Hemophilia (lack of clotting factor).

E. Blood Typing and Transfusions.

1. ABO blood groups

a. Type A blood- have type A surface antigens, and anti- B antibodies in the plasma.

b. Type B blood- have type B surface antigens, and anti- A antibodies in the plasma.

c. Type AB blood- have type A and type B surface antigens, and no anti- A or anti- B antibodies.

d. Type O blood- has no surface antigens, and both anti-A and anti-B antibodies in the plasma.

2. Blood compatability for transfusions.

a. Blood compatability is very important when transfusions are done. Blood- type matching must be done before a blood transfusion is performed to observe whether agglutination will occur between the donor and recipients blood.

3. Rh blood groups.

a. the Rh factor determines the positive or negative in blood type.

b. In a pregnancy where the child is Rh+ and the mother is Rh-, the Rh+ RBCs leak across the placenta into the mother's blood stream, where she forms anti- Rh antibodies. The antibodies then cross the placenta into the child and attack it's RBCs, causing Hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN), which can lead to brain damage, mental retardation, or death.

F. Homeostasis- Maintenance of normal internal conditions in a cell or an organism by means of self-regulating mechanisms.

1. What each system does:

a. Cardiovascular System- blood vessels transport O2 and nutrients to the cells of all organs and transports wastes away from them.

b. Nervous System- nerves help regulate the contraction of the heart and the contraction/ dilation of blood vessels.

c. Endocrine System- blood vessels transport hormones from glands to their target organ.

d. Respiratory system- blood vessels transport gases to and from the lungs.

e. Digestive system- blood vessels deliver nutrients from the digestive tract, which provides the molecules needed for plasma protein formation and blood cell formation, through the blood.

f. Urinary system- kidneys excrete wastes, through the blood vessels, and help regulate the water- salt balance necessary to maintain blood volume and pressure and help regulate the acid- base balance of the blood.

g. Lymphatic system- helps maintain blood volume by collecting excess tissue fluid and returning it via lymphatic vessels to the cardiovascular veins.

h. Muscular system- muscles contract to keep blood moving through the heart and blood vessels, particularly veins.

i. Skeletal system- the rib cage protects the heart, red bone marrow produces blood cells, and bones store Ca2+ for blood clotting.

III. Lymphatic System and Immunity

A. Microbes and Pathogens.

1. Bacteria- single celled prokaryotes that don't have a nucleus.

a. Shapes of bacteria: Bacillus (rod), Coccus (spherical), and Spirillum (curved).

2. Viruses- acellular (not composed of cells), obligate parasites that do not live independently.

a. Viruses cause: colds, flu, measles, chicken pox, polio, rabies, AIDS,genetal warts, herpes.

3. Prions- proteinaceous infectious particles, cause a group of degenerative diseases of the nervous system.

a. Prions cause: Creutzfeldt- Jakob disease (CJD) in humans, Scrapie in sheep, and Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (Mad Cow Disease).

B. The Lymphatic System.

1. The Primary Lymphatic Organs.

a. Red Bone Marrow- produces all types of blood cells.

b. Thymus Gland- lymphatic tissue where T lymphocytes mature.

2. Secondard Lymphatic Organs.

a. Spleen- filters the blood.

b. Lymph Nodes- cleanse lymph and alert the immune system of pathogens.

c. Lymph Nodules- concentrations of lymph tissue.

d. Tonsils- same function as lymph nodes, but are the first to encounter pathogens and antigens, by way of the nose and mouth.

e. Peyer's patches- encounter pathogens by way of the intestinal tract.

C. Nonspecific Defenses

1. Immunity- the ability to combat diseases and cancer, includes lines of defense.

a. Barriers to entry.

b. The inflammatory reaction, which involves the phagocytic neutrophils and macrophages.

c. Protective proteins.

D. Specific Defenses

1. B cells and Antibody- Mediated Immunity

a. After activation, the B cells combine with a specific antigen, then undergo clonal selection, which produces plasma cells and memory B cells.

b. Plasma cells secrete antibodies and undergo apoptosis (the process of programmed cell death); Plasma cells are responsible for antibody- mediated immunity.

c. Memory B cells stay in the body to produce antibodies if the same antigen enters the body at a later date.

2. T cells and Cell- Mediated Immunity.

a. T cells recognize an antigen if it is presented by a macrophage with an HLA (Human Leukocyte Antigen).

b. Activated T cells undergo clonal expansion until the illness has been stemmed. Most undergo apoptosis, the rest stay as memory T cells.

c. Two main types of T cells: Cytotoxic (kill virus- infected cells on contact), and Helper (produce cytokines and stimulate other immune cells).

E. Aquired Immunity

1. Active Immunity

a. Immunizations, or Vaccines, are substances that contain an antigen to which the immune system responds.

2. Passive Immunity

a. Gamma Globulin Injection- serum that contains antibodies.

b. Cytokines- sinaling molecules produced by T lymphocytes, macrophages, and other cells, that regulate while blood cell formaton and/ or function.

F. Hypersensitivity Reactions

1. Allergies- Hypersensitivity to substances, such as pollen, food, or animal hair, that ordinarily would not harm the body.

a. Anaphylactic shock- an immediate and life threatening allergic response that occurs because the allergen, such as a bee sting or penicillin shot, has entered the bloodstream, and requires immediate medical attention.

2. Tissue Rejection- recipient's immune system recognizes that the transplanted tissue is not its own, and rejects the transplant.

3. Disorders of the Immune System

a. Auto-immune disease, myasthenia gravis, multiple sclerosis (MS), systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), rheumatoid arthritis, AIDS, and severe combined immunodeficiency disease (SCID).

IV. AIDS Supplement

A. Origin and Prevalence of HIV

1. Pandemic- the disease is prevalent in the entire human population around the world.

a. Sub-Saharan Africa (24.5 million infected) and Asia (8.3 million)

b. Latin America (1.6 million) and the Caribbean (330,000)

c. North America (1.3 million), Europe and Central Asia (3.5 million)

d. North Africa and the Middle East (440,000)

e. Oceania (78,000)

B. Phases of an HIV Infection

1. Category A: Acute Phase

a. no apparent symptoms, highly infectious, and a CD4 T cell count never below 500 cells per mm³ of blood.

b. An HIV antibody test usually comes up negative because it usually takes about 25 days for detectable levels of HIV antibodies in body fluid.

2. Category B: Chronic Phase

a. CD4 count between 499 and 200 cells per mm³, and one or more symptoms related to an impaired immune system.

1. Yeast infection of the mouth or vagina, cervical dysplasia, prolonged diarrhea, hairy leukoplakia, shingles, swollen lymph nodes, unexplained persistant or recurrent fevers, fatigue, and/or cough.

3. Category C: AIDS

a. CD4 cell count below 200 cells per mm³, or has one or more of the 25 AIDS defining illnesses.

b. Some opportunistic infections:

1. Pneumocystis Jiroveci Pneumonia- a fungal infection of the lungs.

2. Mycobacterium Tuberculosis- a bacterial infection usually of lymph nodes or lungs but may be spread to other organs.

3. Toxoplasmic Encephalitis- a protozoan parasistic infection, often seen in the brain.

4. Kaposi's Sarcoma- an unusual cancer of the blood vessels, which gives rise to reddish purple, coin- sized spots and lesions on the skin.

5. Invasive Cervical Cancer- a cancer of the cervix, which spreads to nearby tissues.

C. HIV Structure and Life Cycle

1.HIV is made up of: two single strands of RNA, various proteins, an envelope that it gets from the host cell, and three protective protein coats (nucleocapsid, capsid, and matrix).

2. Three important enzymes within the matrix.

a. Reverse Transcriptase- catalyzes reverse transcription, which is the conversion of the viral RNA to viral DNA.

b. Integrase- catalyzes the integration of viral DNA into the DNA of the host cell.

c. Protease- catalyzes the breakdown of the newly synthesized viral polypeptides into functional viral proteins.

3. HIV Life Cycle

a. Attachment, fusion, entry, reverse transcription, integration, biosynthesis and cleavage, assembly, and budding.

4. Transmission and Prevention of HIV

a. Transmission

a1. Sexual contact (vaginal, rectal, or oral), needle- sharing with intravenous drugs, genetic passdown, and, very rarely, from a blood or clotting factor transfusion.

a2. Highest concentration of HIV is in blood, semen, vaginal fluid, and breast milk.

5. HIV Testing and Treatment

a. HIV tests do not test for HIV, they test for the presence of HIV antibodies.

a1. Antibodies do not show until 2 weeks to 6 months after infection occurs, and test results can take weeks.

b. Drug Therapy

b1. There is no cure for AIDS, but the Highly Active Antiretrovirus Therapy (HAART) will usually slow down the progression of the virus, giving the patient extra years of life. Hoever, the patient must stay on a regimen or the virus will become drug resistant.

c. Vaccines

c1. In 2006, 27 preventative vacines were used in human trials, but the results will not be in until 2010.

Unit 1 Self and Unit Evaluation

2008-06-13T21:42:00.002-07:00

Self Evaluation
1. What were the three aspects of the assignments I've submitted that I am most proud of?
My picture choices, my material choices for the cell lab, and my early posting, which helps me out big time on crunch day!
2. What two aspects of my submitted assignments do I believe could have used some improvement?
Definitly the way I put my posts together, and my dependancy on the book.
3. What do I believe my overall grade should be for this unit?
Honestly, I would have to say a mid-range B. I know my stuff, but I'm not worthy of an A.
4. How could I perform better in the next unit?
Now that I know what to expect, and how things are supposed to be done, I can study and post more efficiantly.

Unit Evaluation
1.At what moment during this unit did you feel most engaged with the course?
I would have to say the second half of the unit, mostly because I love Genetics!
2.At what moment in this unit did you feel most distanced from the course?
At the beginning. There were a lot of new things for me, and I am easily confused.
3.What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit that you find most affirming and helpful?
I loved the promptness of the teacher. If I had a question, I usually got an answer that same day. That helped out a lot!
4.What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit did you find most puzzling or confusing?
The blog and stuff like that was kind of confusing, mostly because it's new to me.
5.What about this unit surprised you the most? (This could be something about your own reactions to the course, something that someone did, or anything else that occurs to you.)
I didn't think I could learn everything in eight weeks, but I am learning a lot!

Ethical Issue Essay 1- Cloning

2008-06-13T21:32:00.002-07:00

Cloning, Good or Bad?

Clone: A group of cells or organisms that are genetically identical as a result of asexual reproduction, breeding of completely inbred organisms, or forming genetically identical organisms by nuclear transplantation. Cloning is one of the most controversial issues in science today. What is it? Is it good? Is it bad? Why? I asked three people these questions, and to make it a little easier on them, I narrowed it down to three subjects and asked each of them for their opinion on one of the three subjects. The three subjects I chose are cloning for medical purposes, cloning animals, and cloning humans.
The first person I asked was my father-in-law, Earl. I asked him for his opinion on cloning for medical purposes. Being a diabetic and having cardiac problems, I thought he would have an interesting opinion on it. He said that he thought it was a good thing, but a bad thing too. Sure, by cloning organs you can be certain that the patient will not reject it, because it’s an exact copy, but who’s to say it won’t go bad too. Also, how much more will it cost to get a cloned organ over a donor? It’s good that they are able to do it, and it’s probably already saving lives, but who knows. He also had an opinion on animal cloning, but I left that one for my mother.
According to my mother, Jeannine, cloning of animals is, for the most part, a good thing. You can be sure that the quality of meat will be excellent, and you never have to worry about a bad piece. But then you have to think about cost. Because they are cloning them, will the prices of meat go up? Sure, there will be more, but it’s better quality, which always costs more, and with gas prices and everything else going up in price because of gas, now is definitely not the time for it. Cloning animals however, isn’t nearly as controversial as cloning humans.
Lastly, I asked my husband, Keith, what he thought of cloning humans. Being one of the most opinionated people I know, I saved this one for him. According to my husband, cloning humans is scientists trying to play god. There is no need for human cloning, it will only lead to mass racism, man vs. clone, and possibly lead to the apocalypse or a second civil war. Not to mention, how will we be able to keep track of who is the person, and who is the clone? There is no way to be certain that things will happen the way they want it too, because once you clone a person, the clone has its own mind.
Let’s take a look at what my father-in-law, mother, and husband had to say about cloning, and what I think. I would have to say that I agree with all three of them. I think that cloning things for medical reasons is a great idea, but cost is definitely a concern. I think that cloning animals for quality not quantity is a great idea, but again, cost is a concern. And lastly, I think that cloning people is a horrible idea. I would hate to see our world crumble and end up like some science fiction story.
Cloning. Will there ever come an end to this controversy? Whether it’s organs, animals, or humans, someone will always have an opinion different from everyone else.

Build a Cell

2008-06-12T16:18:00.015-07:00

Our first off-line lab project is to build a cell using any materials we wanted. One of my favorite places to be is in the kitchen, so I decided to make mine edible. My cell was constructed out of things I found in the pantry and the fridgerator. I hope you enjoy it as much as I did.

This is the very beginning of my project, where I chose my materials.

*Plasma Membrane- glass pie dish
*Nucleus-

Nuclear envelope-orange peel
Chromatin- orange's insides

Nucleolus- Atomic Fire Ball

*Endoplasmic Reticulum-
Rough- grahm crackers

Smooth- candy corn
*Ribosomes- yellow sprinkles

*Polyribosomes- black rice
*Mitochondion- mallowcreams
*Golgi Apparatus- sour gummy worms
*Cytoplasm- orange Jell-O
*Vesicles- green spice drops

*Lysosomes- red spice drops
*Centrosome- Centrioles-peppermint sticks

*Cytoskeleton-

Actin Filaments- red thread
Intermediate Filaments- blue thread
Microtubules- spaghetti noodles

*Proteins- blue sprinkles
*Lipids- orange sprinkles
Enzymes- green sprinkles

Picture 1 is all of my materials, picture 2 is during the build, picture 3 is my cell chilling in the fridge (LOL), and picture 4 is the finished product.

Functions:

*Nucleus- the power house of the cell

*Nuclear Envelope- double membrane with nuclear poresthat encloses the nucleus.

*Chromatin- diffuse threads containing protein and DNA.

*Nucleolus- region that produces subunits of ribosomes.

*Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum- studded with ribosomes; aides in protein production.

*Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum- lacks ribosomes; synthesizes lipid molecules.

*Ribosomes- particles that carry out protein synthesis.

*Mitochondrion- organelle that carries out cellular respiration, producing ATP molecules.

*Polyribosome- string of ribosomes simultaneously synthesizing the same protein.

*Golgi Apparatus- processes, packages, and secretes modified cell products.

*Cytoplasm- semifluid matrix outside the nucleus that contains organelles.

*Vesicle- membrane- bounded sac that stores and transports substances.

*Lysosome- vesicle that digests macromolecules and even cell parts.

*Centrosome- microtubule organizing center that contains a pair of centrioles.

*Centrioles- short cylinders of microtubules of unknown function.

*Cytoskeleton- maintains cell shape and assists movement of cell parts.

*Microtubules- cylinders of protein molecules present in cytoplasm, centrioles, cilia, and flagella.

*Intermediate Filaments- protein fibers that provide support and strength.
*Actin Filaments- protein fibers that play a role in movement of cell and organelles.

Now for my models of DNA unzipping to form mRNA, and the process of Mitosis.

This is my model of Transcription, to form mRNA. After that occurs, the mRNA leave the nucleus for Translation, where mRNA combines with ribosomes and tRNA, who carry amino acids, to form amino acid chains, also known as Proteins.

Mitosis:

Early Prophase- Centrosomes have duplicated. Chromatin is condensing into chromosomes, and the nuclear envelope is fragmenting.

Prophase- Nucleolus has disappeared, and duplicated chromosomes are visible. Centrosomes begin moving apart, and spindle is in process of forming.

Early Metaphase- Each chromatid is attached to a spindle fiber. Some spindle fibers stretch from each spindle pole and overlap.

Metaphase- Centrosomes of duplicated chromosomes are aligned at the equator (center of the fully formed spindle). Spindle fibers attached to the sister chromatids come from opposite spindle poles.

Anaphase- Sister chromatids part and become daughter chromosomes that move toward the spindle poles. In this way, each pole recieves the same number and kinds of chromosomes as the parental cell.

Telophase- Daughter cells are forming as nuclear envelopes and nucleoli reappear. Chromosomes will become indistinct chromatin.

Cytokinesis- The division of the cytoplasm and organelles.

Well, there's my lab project. I had so much fun making everything, and I learned a lot about cells and how complex they are. I definitly look forward to the next project!

(All photos taken with my Nikon D50, and all definitions are thanks to Sylvia S. Mader, Human Biology, 10e)

Genetics Labs- Dragon and Punnett Square

2008-06-11T11:14:00.010-07:00

Photo 1 is of my dragons. I altered the baby's alleles to match the adult.

Photo 2 is of my fruit flies. I crossed their genotypes to find out the offsprings genotypes.

I've always found Genetics to be interesting. I find it to be such a complex thing, but when it's narrowed down, it's quite simple. I must admit, I wasn't very good at Biology in High School, but I am more interested in it now... It's fun!

Genetic Inheritance, while being quite complex, is rather simple. Certain traits are passed down from parents to their children, and they pass their traits on to their children, and so on. The genes that pass on those traits are known as Genotypes, and the visual expression of those traits is called Phenotypes. In a punnett square, Genotypes are represented by two letters, either upper case, lower case, or one of each. Upper case letters represent Dominant Alleles (the stronger gene), and lower case letters represent the Recessive Alleles (the weaker gene). Alleles are an alternate form of a gene that happens in the same spot on chromosomes, which when combined, create a Genotype. There are three different types of Genotypes: Homozygous Dominant (DD), Heterozygous (Dr), and Homozygous Recessive (rr). When you cross parents Genotypes in a punnett square, you get the four possible offspring Genotypes. For example, you have a blonde haired, blue eyed dad, and a brown haired, green eyed mom. We'll say that the brown hair and blue eyes are dominant, and the blonde hair and green eyes are recessive.

Brown hair=H

Blonde hair=h

Blue eyes=E

Green eyes=e

Mom=He

Dad=hE

Offspring=HhEe

When the genes are crossed, the punnett shows that all four offspring will have brown hair and blue eyes.

And that is the basics of Genetic Inheritance (genotype, phenotype, allele, cross, dominant, recessive).

Unit 1 Compendium 2- Genetics

2008-06-10T14:28:00.006-07:00

I. Patterns of Chromosome Inheritance

A. Chromosomes and the Cell Cycle
1. Humans have 46 chromosomes in 23 pairs: 22 control traits, 1 controls sex
2. Cell Cycle- occurs for cell duplication
a. Interphase- Growth 1, Synthesis, Growth 2
b. Mitosis and Cytokinesis

B. Mitosis- Cell duplication division
1. Prophase- the nucleolus dissappears and duplicated chromosomes appear, centrosomes
begin moving apart, and spindle starts to form
2. Metaphase- Centromeres of duplicated chromosomes are aligned at the equator, spindle
fibers attached to sister chromatids come from opposite spindle poles.
3. Anaphase- Sister chromatids part and become daughter chromosomes that move toward
the spindle poles. Each pole recieves the same number and kind of chromosomes as the
parent cell.
4. Telophase- Daughter cells are forming as nuclear envelopes and nucleoli reappear.
Chromosomes will become indistinct chromatin.
5. Cytokinesis- Cytoplasm and oganelles divide and cell division completes.

C. Meiosis- Reduction division- involves two divisions equaling 4 daughter cells with half as many chromosomes as the parent cell.
1. Meiosis 1- duplicated homologous pairs synapse and separate. (Same as Mitosis)
2. Meiosis 2 and Fertilization- sister chromatids separate becoming daughter chromosomes, which mature into Gametes (sex cells).

D. Comparison of Meiosis and Mitosis
1. Mitosis produces diploid cells (46 chromosomes in each)
2. Meiosis produces haploid cells (23 chromosomes in each) or sex cells.
a. Spermatogenesis- production of sperm- each daughter cell, or sperm, have only 23
chromosomes, making them haploid.
1. A male produces 300,000 sperm per minute, or 400,000,000 per day.
b. Oogenesis- production of eggs- each egg is also haploid, and can not complete meiosis 2
without a sperm.

E. Chromosome Inheritance
1. Abnormalities in chromosome inheritance happen because of number and structural
changes in chromosomes.
a. The most common is trisomy 21, or Down Syndrome
b. Chromosomal structure changes most often lead to physical abnormalities.

II. Patterns of Genetic Inheritance

A. Genotype and Phenotype
1. Genotype- genes of an individual for a particular trait or traits; Letters in a punnett
square: AA, Aa, aa.
2. Phenotype- visable expression of a genotype, such as brown eyes or blonde hair.

B. One- and Two- Trait Inheritance
1. Allele- alternate form of a gene that happens in the same spot on chromosomes.
a. Dominant Allele- A
b. Recessive Allele- a
c. Homozygous Dominant- AA
d. Heterozygous- Aa
e. Homozygous Recessive- aa
2. Combining genotypes results in multiple gamete types (WwSs)
3. Just as traits are given from parents to children, certain diseases can be given as well.
(Ex: Sickle-cell, PKU, Tay-Sachs, Huningtons)

C. Beyond Simple Inheritance Patterns
1. Polygenic traits, like height and skin color, are determined by multiple sets of alleles.
2. Traits, like blood type, are determined by multiple alleles where the gene exists in many
forms (Ex: Iªi = blood type A).

D. Sex- Linked Inheritance
1. X- linked- Traits attaxhed to the X chromosome.
a. Ex: Color Blindness, Muscular Dystrophy, Hemophilia.

III. Cancer

A. Cancer Cells
1. Characteristics: Lacks differentiation, have abnormal nuclei, have unlimited replicative
potential, form tumors, have no need for growth factors, and undergo Angiogenesis
(formation of new blood vessels) and Metastasis (form new tumors far from primary
tumor).
2. Types: Carcinomas (epithelial tissue), Sarcomas (muscle and connective tissue),
Leukemia (blood), and Lymphomas (lymphatic tissue).

B. Causes and Prevention of Cancer
1. Causes: Heredity, Carcinogens (chemicals), Radiation, Tobacco, Pollutants (asbestos,
radon), and Viruses ( Hep B and C).
2. Prevention: Watch what you eat, watch for occupational hazards, keep an eye on hormone
therapies, get tested and vaccinated, avoid obesity, alcohol, and radiation. All of these can
possibly trigger a cancer gene and make it spread.

C. Diagnosis of Cancer
1. Seven Warning Signs
a. Change in bowel or bladder habits
A sore that does not heal
Unusual bleeding or discharge
Thickening or lump in breast or elsewhere
Indigestion or difficulty swallowing
Obvious change in wart or mole
Nagging cough or hoarseness
2. Routine Screening Tests
a. ABCD of Melanoma- Asymmetry, Border, Color, Diameter
b. Shower self-exam- breast or testicular
c. Mammogram, CAT scan, or MRI
d. Blood tests- tumor marker or genetic

D. Treatment of Cancer
1. Standard Therapy- Surgery, Radiation, Chemotherapy, Bone marrow transplant.
2. Newer Therapies- Immunotherapy, p53 Gene Therapy

IV. DNA Biology and Technology

A. DNA and RNA
1. DNA- double helix- complimentary paired bases bonded by either 2 or 3 hydrogen bonds.
2. RNA- single strand- no need for hydrogen bond
a. Types of RNA: Ribosomal (rRNA), Messanger (mRNA), and Transfer (tRNA).

B. Gene Expression
1. Protein strand types: amino acid sequence, alpha helix, beta sheet, and tertiary.
2. Transcription- a DNA strand acts as a template for RNA.
3. Translation- the sequence of codons of mRNA specifying the sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide.
a. Genetic Code- a triplet code of amino acids, also known as a codon.

C. Genomics- study of all the nucleotide sequences, including structural genes, regulatory sequences, and non coding DNA segments, in the chromosomes of an organism.
1. Protemics- study of structure, function, and interaction of cellular proteins. 2. Bioinformatics- application of computer technologies to the study of the genome.
3. A person's genome can be modified through gene therapy.
a. Ex Vivo Gene Therapy- used to treat children with Immunodeficiency disorders; Introduces missing ADA into the defective gene, correcting it.
b. In Vivo Gene Therapy- used to treat patients with Cystic Fibrosis; Introduces a missing gene via the respiratory system.

D. DNA Technology
1. Cloning- the production of genetically identical DNA, cells, or organisms asexually.
2. Genetic Engineering- Altering DNA for environmental or industrial purposes.

(All pictures thanks to Google images)

Microscope Lab Results

2008-06-06T14:30:00.010-07:00

I have used Microscopes before, but I realized that it has been quite a long time.

<- This is what I saw at 4x. It was a basic onion root cell.

This is what I saw at 10x. I started to see more of the internal ->
cell structure. Very interesting!

<- And this is what I saw at 40x. Complete internal cell structure.
Ironically, for me, 40x was a way better view then 100x.

I found it easier to adjust things looking through it =)

What each piece does: The stage is the plate that holds your specimen slide, you use the course and fine focus knobs to focus the image, the iris is used to let in light, you adjust the oculars so that you can see the image, and the objectives let you see the specimen at different magnifications (i.e. 4x, 10x, 40x, 100x).

A little history: The first compound microscope was invented around 1595 by Zacharias Janssen in Middleburg, Holland. It's magnification only ranged from 3x to 9x. It was later improved by Robert Hooke around 1660. In 1665, Mr. Hooke used the word "cell" to describe the plant tissues he viewed through the microscope, and two years later discovered why we need oxygenation in the respiratory system. During that time Anton van Leeuwenhoek, a man who made microscopes for a living, was the first to describe bacteria and protozoans. He also helped prove that blood does circulate through the body.

Types of microscopes:
Compound- uses light, images are 2D, allows you to view individual cells.
Dissection- uses light, images are 3D, allows you to view larger specimens such as earthworms.
Scanning Electron
- SEM- uses electrons, images are 3D, exterior views, images are black and white
- TEM- uses electrons, images are 2D, internal views, images are black and white

Unit 1 Compendium 1- Cells

2008-06-06T12:12:00.012-07:00

I. Exploring Life and Science

A. Life is organized: atom-> molecule-> cell-> tissue-> organ-> organ system-> organism
1. Life evolves through time by adapting to new environments and conditions.

B. Life Domains
1. Eukarya- animals, humans, plants, fungi, protists -
All have a membrane- bound nucleus
2. Archaea and Bacteria all lack a membrane- bound
nucleus.

C. Science and Theories
1. Discoveries: Cells, Homeostasis, Genes, Ecosystem,
Evolution, cause of Ulcers.

D. Scientific Studies
1. What to look for: Graphs and Statistical Data

E. Every person has interacted with science and technology, giving each person the responsibility to participate in how they are used to better the world.

II. Chemistry of Life

A. Atoms and Molecules
1. Atoms, the smallest unit of an element, when fused with other atoms, forms molecules.

B. The H2O Molecule (A.K.A. Water)
1. The amount of +H in a molecule determines whether it is a base or an acid. More +H = Acid, Less +H = Base.
2. Ex: Acid- Tomatoes; Base- Ammonia; Neutral- Pure Water

C. Carbohydrates: Used for short term energy.
1. Glucose- Simple Carbohydrate ( Mono saccharides
and Di saccharides).
2. Starch- Complex Carbohydrate ( Polysaccharides).

D. Lipids: Fats and oils, while needed for long
term energy, are not good for your health.

E. Proteins: many different shapes and functions.
1. Ex: hair, muscle, hemoglobin, hormones.

F. Nucleic Acids- DNA and RNA- bound nucleotides
in either a single helix(RNA) or double helix(DNA).

III. Cell Structure and Function.

A. Cell- basic unit of life, too small to see by eye, that can only be reproduced by another existing cell.

B. How cells are organized.
1. Plasma membrane, Cytoplasm, and Nucleus.

C. Plasma membrane: Phospholipids bound with proteins that allow certain things in and out of a cell.

D. The Nucleus and the Production of Proteins
1. In the chromatin, DNA specifies the amino acid sequence of the protein, the proteins are then made by the ribosomes, and lastly, the Golgi modifies the proteins before being secreted by the cell.

E. Cytoskeleton and Cell Movement.
1. Crisscrossed fibers forming the cytoskeleton hold the cells shape, while cilia and flagellum help move ATP energy molecules.

F. The Mitochondria uses cellular respiration to break down Glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids, into ATP energy molecules.

IV. Body Systems

A. Tissue Types- Connective, Muscular, Nervous, and Epithelial
1. Connective- 3 types- fibrous, supportive, and fluid.
2. Muscular- 3 types- skeletal, smooth, and cardiac.
3. Nervous- contains neurons and neuroglia (supportive cells)- brain, nerves, spinal cord.
4. Epithelial- 5 types- simple squamous, simple cuboidal, simple columnar, pseudostratified, and stratified squamous.

B. Cell Junctions- 3 types- tight, adhesion, and gap.
1. Tight- prevents joined cells from leaking anything.
2. Adhesion- connects cells permanently.
3. Gap- connects cells cytoplasms.

C. Integumentary System- The Skin
1. The skin and it's organ system work together to keep the body at the right temperature; It works kind of like a thermostat: Too hot- open pores and sweat to cool off, Too cold- close pores to hold in body heat and stop sweating.

D. Organ Systems- 11 types

1. Integumentary- skin 7. Skeletal
2. Cardiovascular 8. Muscular
3. Lymphatic and Immune 9. Nervous
4. Digestive 10. Endocrine
5. Respiratory 11. Reproductive
6. Urinary

12. All of the systems work together to maintain the body's Homeostasis.

E. Homeostasis- the body's ability to maintain consistency in it's internal environment by adjusting certain things.

( All images thanks to Google images.)

2008-05-27T17:51:00.002-07:00

Three interesting things about me and my family:

1. My favorite animal is an Elephant, because

they mate for life, and family is very important

to them.

2. My aunt Kathy and her husband were born in

the same hospital on the same day.

3. My mother collects money from other countries.

A little about me =)

2008-05-27T17:30:00.000-07:00

Hello everyone! I'm so excited to be back in school. Let me tell you a little bit about myself. My name is Jennifer Taylor. I am a wife and a new mom of a beautiful baby boy. My husband is going to school for video game design, and my ultimate goal is to be a Registered Nurse just like my mother and grandmother. It's hard for me to pick just one artist to be my favorite, as I have many that I enjoy immensely. I would have to say that my top two are Da Vinci and Van Gough. Da Vinci because he was a master of the human body and invention, and Van Gough because his painting style amazes me. I decided to take Human Biology not only because it is a prerequisite for the Nursing program, but because I love science and the human body amazes me. I hope to gain a better understanding of the body and how it is formed and how it works. I look forward to working with all of you and look forward to an awesome eight weeks. Good luck!