Self
1. What were the three aspects of the assignments I've submitted that I am most proud of?
My work was much better this time, my posting is getting done on a regular basis, and my Compendiums have table of contents =)
2. What two aspects of my submitted assignments do I believe could have used some improvement?
My photo captions not being all kerfunked, and my choice of pictures perhaps.
3. What do I believe my overall grade should be for this unit?
I'd have to say either a high B or a low A like last time.
4. How could I perform better in the next unit?
Take all my not so good things and fix them.
Unit
1. At what moment during this unit did you feel most engaged with the course?
During the first part. I like the heart! It's probably my favorite organ in the body.
2. At what moment during this unit did you feel most distanced from the course?
During the Nutrition part. It's hard for me to read about a lot of the stuff on obese people, because it seems like they stereotype all obese people as being lazy junk food eaters. But we're not all like that.
3. What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit did you find most affirming and helpful?
The powerpoints were awesome for this unit. They were just like the last unit, but for some reason they helped more this time.
4. What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit did you find most puzzling or confusing?
To be totally honest, nothing. This unit was very simple and not confusing or puzzling at all.
5. What about this unit surprised you the most? (This could be something about your own reactions to the course, something that someone did, or anything else that occurs to you.)
This unit, the nutrition portion, made me curious enough to step on the scale. The last time I was on a scale, I had just gained 30 pounds... very depressing. But I am inching myself closer and closer to the 200 mark, and I am so happy!
Friday, June 27, 2008
Unit 2 Lab Pictures
Electronic BP Cuff
One of the readings
Have to feed the chickens
And the horses too
Can't forget to water the flowers
or the garden
This was going to be dinner
And this is Steven eating a cookie
Unit 2 Lab- Exercise Physiology
Unit 2 Lab Project: Exercise Physiology
The objective of this lab was to measure basic body metabolic parameters- pulse, respiration, and blood pressure- at rest and doing various activities. For my activities, I chose things I do on a daily basis. Taking care of my 5 month old, eating, and doing chores.
*My Hypothesis: I think that taking care of the baby will raise my pulse, respiration, and blood pressure. Eating will raise my pulse and blood pressure, but not my respiration. And, doing chores will raise my pulse, respiration, and blood pressure.
*My Materials: To measure my pulse and blood pressure, I used an electronic blood pressure cuff. To measure my respiratory rate, I used my watch to see when 30 seconds had passed, and I counted breaths in my head. (Also see pictures)
*My Data:
*Analysis of Data: My hypothesis was correct. Taking care of the
baby raised my pulse, respiration, and blood pressure, eating raised my pulse and blood pressure, but not my respiration, and doing chores raised my pulse, respiration, and blood pressure.
*Conclusion: I can now say that the metabolic parameters will increase with an increase in physical activity. I can also say that eating will cause your blood pressure and pulse to increase, most likely because your digestive system is breaking down the food and fueling the rest of the body.
The objective of this lab was to measure basic body metabolic parameters- pulse, respiration, and blood pressure- at rest and doing various activities. For my activities, I chose things I do on a daily basis. Taking care of my 5 month old, eating, and doing chores.
*My Hypothesis: I think that taking care of the baby will raise my pulse, respiration, and blood pressure. Eating will raise my pulse and blood pressure, but not my respiration. And, doing chores will raise my pulse, respiration, and blood pressure.
*My Materials: To measure my pulse and blood pressure, I used an electronic blood pressure cuff. To measure my respiratory rate, I used my watch to see when 30 seconds had passed, and I counted breaths in my head. (Also see pictures)
*My Data:
*Analysis of Data: My hypothesis was correct. Taking care of the
baby raised my pulse, respiration, and blood pressure, eating raised my pulse and blood pressure, but not my respiration, and doing chores raised my pulse, respiration, and blood pressure.
*Conclusion: I can now say that the metabolic parameters will increase with an increase in physical activity. I can also say that eating will cause your blood pressure and pulse to increase, most likely because your digestive system is breaking down the food and fueling the rest of the body.
Unit 2 Ethical Issue Essay- What is Food?
What is Food?
As an Obese person, this topic really hit home. What is food? Is it just what we consume, or is it what we get from consuming? Is it fresh? Is it processed? Is it neither? What is food? I did a little research and have found three articles that caught my eye. One is from Mr. Michael Pollan, from Times Magazine, an article from LE Magazine, and lastly, the definition of food from Wikipedia, the free online encyclopedia.
In Michael Pollan’s January 28, 2007 article in The Times Magazine, he says “A little meat won’t kill you, though it’s better approached as a side dish than as a main. And you’re much better off eating whole fresh foods than processed food products. That’s what I mean by the recommendation to eat “food.” Once, food was all you could eat, but today there are lots of other edible food like substances in the supermarket. These novel products of food science often come in packages festooned with health claims, which brings me to a related rule of thumb: if you’re concerned about your health, you should probably avoid food products that make health claims. Why? Because a health claim on a food product is a good indication that it’s not really food, and food is what you want to eat.” But what if what you were eating the food for was not what you were getting?
I found this article from the March 2001 edition of LE Magazine particularly interesting. “Imagine the surprise of going online and discovering that the vitamin and mineral content of vegetables has drastically dropped.
That’s what happened to nutritionist, Alex Jack, when he went to check out the latest US Department of Agriculture food tables. The stunning revelation came after Jack compared recently published nutrient values with an old USDA handbook he had lying around. Some of the differences in vitamin and mineral content were enormous-a 50% drop in the amount of calcium in broccoli, for example. Watercress down 88% in iron content; cauliflower down 40% in vitamin C content-all since 1975.
Jack took his findings to the USDA, hoping for a reasonable explanation. That was two years ago. He’s still waiting. So is Organic Gardening magazine, which published an open letter, seeking an explanation from Dan Glickman, Secretary of Agriculture. Glickman didn’t respond, but USDA employee, Phyllis E. Johnson did. Johnson (who is head of the Beltsville area office), suggested to Organic Gardening that the nutrient drain should be put in context. According to her, the 78% decrease in calcium content of corn is not significant because no one eats corn for calcium. She further explains that the problem may not even exist at all; that the apparent nutrient dips could be due to the testing procedures. For example, “changes in the public’s perception of what the edible portion is may determine what parts have been analyzed over time.” In other words, back when the old food tables were made up, people may have been eating the cob too, so they got more nutrients.
We decided to look into this further. Jack had used a 1975 version of the food tables for his research. We dredged up a 1963 version. After comparing the nutrient values for over a dozen fruits and vegetables, it was clear that the nutrient value of many foods has dropped, in some cases drastically. For example, the amount of vitamin C in sweet peppers has plummeted from 128 mg to 89 mg.= The vitamin A in apples has dropped from 90 mg to 53 mg. The fall-offs seem to be limited mostly to vegetables, and some fruits.
Some vegetables appear to be gaining vitamins-at least vitamin A. Carrots, for example, have more of the vitamin now than they did in 1963. Why is a mystery. But the phenomenon has apparently occurred just in the nick of time. The National Academy of Sciences has issued an alert that it takes twice as many vegetables to get the daily requirement of vitamin A as previously thought. Carrots and pumpkin are exempt from the caveat.
Despite the apparent increase of vitamin A in carrots, most vegetables are losing their vitamins and minerals. Nearly half the calcium and vitamin A in broccoli, for example, have disappeared. Collards are not the greens they used to be. If you're eating them for minerals and vitamin A, be aware that the vitamin A content has fallen from 6500 IUs to 3800 IUs. Their potassium has dropped from 400 mg to 170 mg. Magnesium has fallen sharply-57 mg to 9. Cauliflower has lost almost half its vitamin C, along with its thiamin and riboflavin. Most of the calcium in pineapple is gone-from 17 mg (per 100 grams raw) to 7. And the list goes on and on.”
According to Wikipedia, “Food is any substance, usually composed primarily of carbohydrates, fats, water and/or proteins, that can be eaten or drunk by an animal for nutrition or pleasure. Items considered food may be sourced from plants, animals or other categories such as fungus or fermented products like alcohol. Although many human cultures sought food items through hunting and gathering, today most cultures use farming, ranching, and fishing, with hunting, foraging and other methods of a local nature included but playing a minor role.
Most traditions have a recognizable cuisine, a specific set of cooking traditions, preferences, and practices, the study of which is known as gastronomy. Many cultures have diversified their foods by means of preparation, cooking methods and manufacturing. This also includes a complex food trade which helps the cultures to economically survive by-way-of food, not just by consumption.
Many cultures study the dietary analysis of food habits. While humans are omnivores, religion and social constructs such as morality often affect which foods they will consume. Food safety is also a concern with food borne illness claiming many lives each year. In many languages, food is often used metaphorically or figuratively, as in "food for thought".
Between the extremes of optimal health and death from starvation or malnutrition, there is an array of disease states that can be caused or alleviated by changes in diet. Deficiencies, excesses and imbalances in diet can produce negative impacts on health, which may lead to diseases such as scurvy, obesity or osteoporosis, as well as psychological and behavioral problems. The science of nutrition attempts to understand how and why specific dietary aspects influence health.”
To me, food is both the sustenance and the nutrients, and when you combine things in the right order, getting in the recommended amount of grains, fruits, veggies, dairy, meats, fats, and sugars, you get a well balanced meal. Balanced meals are important in maintaining a healthy body, mind, and soul. But for a lot of us, eating balanced meals is hard. We are often tempted to eat “junk food” rather than the healthier option, mostly because it is faster to open a bag of chips then to wash and cut up an apple.
So, what is food? Food is any substance that can be eaten or drunk. Not all food is good for you, and some of what is, doesn’t have the nutrients that it used to. But the most important thing to remember about food is, that food is all around us and it’s our choice what we eat.
MICHAEL POLLAN The Times Magazine Published: January 28, 2007
http://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/28/magazine/28nutritionism.t.html?ex=1327640400&en=7c85a1c254546157&ei=5088&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss
LE Magazine March 2001 http://www.soilandhealth.org/06clipfile/0601.LEMag/LE%20Magazine%2C%20March%202001%20-%20Report%20Vegetables%20Without%20Vitamins.htm
Wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food
As an Obese person, this topic really hit home. What is food? Is it just what we consume, or is it what we get from consuming? Is it fresh? Is it processed? Is it neither? What is food? I did a little research and have found three articles that caught my eye. One is from Mr. Michael Pollan, from Times Magazine, an article from LE Magazine, and lastly, the definition of food from Wikipedia, the free online encyclopedia.
In Michael Pollan’s January 28, 2007 article in The Times Magazine, he says “A little meat won’t kill you, though it’s better approached as a side dish than as a main. And you’re much better off eating whole fresh foods than processed food products. That’s what I mean by the recommendation to eat “food.” Once, food was all you could eat, but today there are lots of other edible food like substances in the supermarket. These novel products of food science often come in packages festooned with health claims, which brings me to a related rule of thumb: if you’re concerned about your health, you should probably avoid food products that make health claims. Why? Because a health claim on a food product is a good indication that it’s not really food, and food is what you want to eat.” But what if what you were eating the food for was not what you were getting?
I found this article from the March 2001 edition of LE Magazine particularly interesting. “Imagine the surprise of going online and discovering that the vitamin and mineral content of vegetables has drastically dropped.
That’s what happened to nutritionist, Alex Jack, when he went to check out the latest US Department of Agriculture food tables. The stunning revelation came after Jack compared recently published nutrient values with an old USDA handbook he had lying around. Some of the differences in vitamin and mineral content were enormous-a 50% drop in the amount of calcium in broccoli, for example. Watercress down 88% in iron content; cauliflower down 40% in vitamin C content-all since 1975.
Jack took his findings to the USDA, hoping for a reasonable explanation. That was two years ago. He’s still waiting. So is Organic Gardening magazine, which published an open letter, seeking an explanation from Dan Glickman, Secretary of Agriculture. Glickman didn’t respond, but USDA employee, Phyllis E. Johnson did. Johnson (who is head of the Beltsville area office), suggested to Organic Gardening that the nutrient drain should be put in context. According to her, the 78% decrease in calcium content of corn is not significant because no one eats corn for calcium. She further explains that the problem may not even exist at all; that the apparent nutrient dips could be due to the testing procedures. For example, “changes in the public’s perception of what the edible portion is may determine what parts have been analyzed over time.” In other words, back when the old food tables were made up, people may have been eating the cob too, so they got more nutrients.
We decided to look into this further. Jack had used a 1975 version of the food tables for his research. We dredged up a 1963 version. After comparing the nutrient values for over a dozen fruits and vegetables, it was clear that the nutrient value of many foods has dropped, in some cases drastically. For example, the amount of vitamin C in sweet peppers has plummeted from 128 mg to 89 mg.= The vitamin A in apples has dropped from 90 mg to 53 mg. The fall-offs seem to be limited mostly to vegetables, and some fruits.
Some vegetables appear to be gaining vitamins-at least vitamin A. Carrots, for example, have more of the vitamin now than they did in 1963. Why is a mystery. But the phenomenon has apparently occurred just in the nick of time. The National Academy of Sciences has issued an alert that it takes twice as many vegetables to get the daily requirement of vitamin A as previously thought. Carrots and pumpkin are exempt from the caveat.
Despite the apparent increase of vitamin A in carrots, most vegetables are losing their vitamins and minerals. Nearly half the calcium and vitamin A in broccoli, for example, have disappeared. Collards are not the greens they used to be. If you're eating them for minerals and vitamin A, be aware that the vitamin A content has fallen from 6500 IUs to 3800 IUs. Their potassium has dropped from 400 mg to 170 mg. Magnesium has fallen sharply-57 mg to 9. Cauliflower has lost almost half its vitamin C, along with its thiamin and riboflavin. Most of the calcium in pineapple is gone-from 17 mg (per 100 grams raw) to 7. And the list goes on and on.”
According to Wikipedia, “Food is any substance, usually composed primarily of carbohydrates, fats, water and/or proteins, that can be eaten or drunk by an animal for nutrition or pleasure. Items considered food may be sourced from plants, animals or other categories such as fungus or fermented products like alcohol. Although many human cultures sought food items through hunting and gathering, today most cultures use farming, ranching, and fishing, with hunting, foraging and other methods of a local nature included but playing a minor role.
Most traditions have a recognizable cuisine, a specific set of cooking traditions, preferences, and practices, the study of which is known as gastronomy. Many cultures have diversified their foods by means of preparation, cooking methods and manufacturing. This also includes a complex food trade which helps the cultures to economically survive by-way-of food, not just by consumption.
Many cultures study the dietary analysis of food habits. While humans are omnivores, religion and social constructs such as morality often affect which foods they will consume. Food safety is also a concern with food borne illness claiming many lives each year. In many languages, food is often used metaphorically or figuratively, as in "food for thought".
Between the extremes of optimal health and death from starvation or malnutrition, there is an array of disease states that can be caused or alleviated by changes in diet. Deficiencies, excesses and imbalances in diet can produce negative impacts on health, which may lead to diseases such as scurvy, obesity or osteoporosis, as well as psychological and behavioral problems. The science of nutrition attempts to understand how and why specific dietary aspects influence health.”
To me, food is both the sustenance and the nutrients, and when you combine things in the right order, getting in the recommended amount of grains, fruits, veggies, dairy, meats, fats, and sugars, you get a well balanced meal. Balanced meals are important in maintaining a healthy body, mind, and soul. But for a lot of us, eating balanced meals is hard. We are often tempted to eat “junk food” rather than the healthier option, mostly because it is faster to open a bag of chips then to wash and cut up an apple.
So, what is food? Food is any substance that can be eaten or drunk. Not all food is good for you, and some of what is, doesn’t have the nutrients that it used to. But the most important thing to remember about food is, that food is all around us and it’s our choice what we eat.
MICHAEL POLLAN The Times Magazine Published: January 28, 2007
http://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/28/magazine/28nutritionism.t.html?ex=1327640400&en=7c85a1c254546157&ei=5088&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss
LE Magazine March 2001 http://www.soilandhealth.org/06clipfile/0601.LEMag/LE%20Magazine%2C%20March%202001%20-%20Report%20Vegetables%20Without%20Vitamins.htm
Wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food
Thursday, June 26, 2008
Unit 2 Lab 2- A day of food
My results showed that yesterday, I intook 1500 calories.
-How healthy a daily diet do you think this is? Why?
Not incredibly healthy, but not incredibly bad either. I include food from all food groups, but not in the proportions I should.
-What would you change about this day's eating, if anything?
I would include more veggies and dairy into my diet, and eat less sweets.
-Do you find this kind of nutritional tracking helpful? Why or why not?
Yes and no. It's good to see how good or bad I am eating, but if it's too bad, I'll feel guilty and stress eat.
Unit 2 Compendium 2 pictures
Digestive System
Stomach and Small Intestine
Obesity
Mouth, Pharynx, and Esophagus
Stomach and Small Intestine
Three Accessory Organs
Large Intestine
Obesity
Referense Daily Intake (RDI) for Vitamins and Minerals
The New Food Pyramid
Mouth, Pharynx, and Esophagus http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/images/ency/fullsize/1118.jpg
Stomach and Small Intestine http://www.geocities.com/aids_holisticspng/stomach_smallintestine.jpg
Accessory Organs http://www.med.umich.edu/1libr/aha/livergal.gif
Large Intestine http://ae.medseek.com/bguide/reftext/images/LargeIntestine.jpg
RDI Vitamins & Minerals http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/foodsci/ext/pubs/Ag-503/tab2.gif
Wednesday, June 25, 2008
Unit 2 Compendium 2- Digestive System and Nutrition
Table of Contents
I. Overview Of Digestion
II. The First Part of the Digestive Tract
III. The Stomach and Small Intestine
IV. Three Accessory Organs and Regulation of Secretions
V.The Large Intestine and Defecation
VI. Nutrition and Weight Control
I. Overview of Digestion
A. Ingestion- occurs when the mouth takes in food.
1. Mouth- teeth chew food, tongue tastes and pushes food, for chewing and swallowing.
2. Salivary Glands- secret saliva which contains a digestive enzyme for carbohydrates.
3. Pharnyx- passageway where food is swallowed.
4. Esophagus- passageway where peristalsis pushes food to stomach.
B. Digestion- Mechanical and Chemical- breakdown of large nutrient molecules into smaller molecules that can be absorbed.
1. Mechanical Digestion- occurs when food is divided into pieces that can be acted on by the digestive enzymes; occurs primarily in the mouth and stomach.
2. Chemical Digestion- begins in the mouth and is not completed until food reaches the small intestine; produces chyme (thick semifluid mass of partly digested food that is passed from the stomach to the small intestine).
a. Stomach- secretes acid and digestive enzyme for protein; churns, mixing food with secretions, and sends chyme to the small intestine.
b. Liver- major metabolic organ- processes and stores nutrients and produces bile for emulsification of fats.
c. Gallbladder- stores bile from liver and sends it to the small intestine.
d. Pancreas- produces pancreatic juice that contains digestive enzymes, and sends it to the small intestine; produces insulin and secretes it into the blood after eating.
C.Movement- GI tract contents moving along the digestive tract is very important. In order for the tract to fulfill it's other functions, movement must occur.
D. Absorbtion- occurs as unit molecules, produced by digestion, cross the wall of the GI tract, enter the cells lining the tract, and then the nutrients enter the blood for delivery to the cells.
1. Small Intestine- mixes chyme with digestive enzymes for final breakdown; absorbs nutrient molecules into the body; secretes digestive hormones into the blood.
2. Large Intestine- absorbs water and salt to form feces.
E. Elimination- the removal of indigestable wastes through the anus, in the form of feces, by defecation.
1. Rectum- stores and regulates elimination of feces.
2. Anus- outlet of the digestive tract.
F. Wall of the digestive Tract
1. Lumen- the central space that contains water/food being digested.
2. Mucosa- inner mucous membrane layer that is modified according to the digestive organ.
3. Submucosa- broad band of loose connective tissue that contains nerves, blood, and lymphatic vessels.
4. Muscularis- two layers of smooth muscle.
5. Serosa- thin, outermost tissue that is the visceral peritoneum.
II. The First Part of the Digestive Tract
A. The Mouth- recieves food and begins mechanical and chemical digestion.
1. Componants- hard palate, soft palate, uvula, tonsils, salivary glands, tongue, and teeth.
2. The teeth chew the food and break it down for digestion, and the tongue pushes it toward the throat.
a. Teeth- 8 incisors, 4 canines, 8 premolars, and 12 molars.
B. The Pharnyx and Esophagus
1. When you swallow food, the tongue pushes the bolus of food up against the soft palate, which closes of the pharnyx. The epiglottis closes off the glottis so that food enters the esophagus and not the lungs.
2. Peristalsis, a rythmic contraction, pushes the bolus down through the esophagus until it hits the lower esophageal spincter, which relaxes, and the food enters the stomach.
III. The Stomach and Small Intestine
A. The stomach expands and stores food, and then churns, mixing it with the acidic gastric juices.
1. Gastric juices contain pepsin, an enzyme that digests protein.
B. Duodenum- recieves bile from the liver and the pancreatic juice from the pancreas.
1. Bile- emulsifies fat and readies it for digestion by lipase.
C. Pancreas- produces enzymes that digest starch, protein, and fat.
1. Pancreatic Amylase- digests starch.
2. Trypsin- digests protein.
3. Lipase- digests fat.
4. The intestinal enzymes finish the process of chemical digestion.
D. Small nutrient molecules are absorbed at the villi in the small intestine walls.
IV. Three Accessory Organs and Regulation of Secretions
A. Three accessory organs of digestion send secretions to the duodenum via ducts. The three organs are the pancreas, liver, and gallbladder.
1. Pancreas- produces pancreatic juice, which contains digestive enzymes for carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.
2. Liver- produces bile, destroys old blood cells, detoxifies blood, stores iron, makes plasma proteins, stores glucose as glycogen, breaks down glycogen to glucose, produces urea, and helps regulate blood cholesterol levels.
3. Gallbladder- stores bile, which is produced by the liver.
B. The secretions of digestive juices are controlled by the nervous system and by hormones.
1. Gastrin- produced by the lower part of the stomach, stimulating, via the bloodstream, the upper part of the stomach to secrete pepsin.
2. Secretin and CCK- produced by the duodenal wall, stimulating the pancreas to secrete juices, and the gallbladder to release bile.
V. The Large Intestine and Defecation
A. Large Intestine
1. Consists of the cecum, the colon (ascending, transverse, and descending), and the rectum.
2. Absorbs water, salts, and some vitamins, forms feces, and carries out defecation.
B. Defecation- discharge of feces from the rectum through the anus.
C. Disorders of the Large Intestine
1. Diverticulosis, Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS), Inflammatory Bowel Disease, Polyps, and Colon Cancer.
VI. Nutrition and Weight Control
A. Obesity- being grossly overweight; defined by body mass index (BMI).
1. Healthy BMI- 19.1 to 26.4; Overweight BMI- 26.5 to 31.1; Obese BMI- 32.3 to 39.9; Morbidly Obese BMI- 40 or more.
B. Classes of Nutrients
1. Nutrient- a componant of food that performs a physiological function in the body.
a. Carbohydrates- the preferred energy source for the body, but select carbohydrates in whole grains, beans, nuts, and fruits, contain fiber, vitamins, and minerals in addition to carbohydrates.
b. Proteins- sufficient proteins are needed to supply the essential amino acids. Meat and dairy sources of protein may supply unwanted saturated fat, but vegetable sources do not.
c. Lipids- Unsaturated fats, such as those in oils, do not lead to cardiovascular disease and are preferred. Fats and oils contain many more calories per gram than do carbohydrates and protein.
d. Minerals- major and trace- the body contains more than 5 grams of each major mineral, and less than 5 grams of each trace mineral.
d1. Major: Calcium (Ca²+), Phosphorus (PO4³-), Potassium (K+), Sulfur (S²-), Sodium (Na+), Chloride (Cl-), and Magnesium (Mg²+).
d2. Trace: Zinc (Zn²+), Iron (Fe²+), Copper (Cu²+), Iodine (I-), Selenium (SeO4²-), and Manganese (Mn²+).
e. Vitamins- organic compounds (other than carbohydrate, fat, and protein) that the body uses for metabolic purposes, but is unable to produce in adequate quantity.
e1. Fat- soluble: Vitamin A, D, E, and K.
e2. Water- soluble: Vitamin C, Thiamine (B1), Riboflavin (B2), Niacin (Nicotinic Acid), Folacin (Folic Acid), B6, Pantothenic Acid, B12, and Biotin.
C. How to Plan Nutritious Meals
1. Eat a variety of foods from all food groups.
a. Grains- 6 oz. daily
b. Vegetables- 2 ½ cups daily
c. Fruits- 2 cups daily
d. Dairy- 3 cups daily (Ages 2-8, 2 cups)
e. Meat and Beans- 5 ½ oz. daily
f. Oils- small amounts daily
D. Eating Disorders
1. Anorexia Nervosa- a severe psychological disorder characterized by an irrational fear of getting fat, that results in the refusal to eat enough food to maintain a healthy weight.
2. Bulimia Nervosa- eating disorder characterized by binge eating followed by purging, via self induced vomiting or use of a laxative.
3. Muscle Dysmorphia- mental state where a person thinks their body is underdeveloped, and becomes preoccupied with body- building and diet; affects more men than women.
I. Overview Of Digestion
II. The First Part of the Digestive Tract
III. The Stomach and Small Intestine
IV. Three Accessory Organs and Regulation of Secretions
V.The Large Intestine and Defecation
VI. Nutrition and Weight Control
I. Overview of Digestion
A. Ingestion- occurs when the mouth takes in food.
1. Mouth- teeth chew food, tongue tastes and pushes food, for chewing and swallowing.
2. Salivary Glands- secret saliva which contains a digestive enzyme for carbohydrates.
3. Pharnyx- passageway where food is swallowed.
4. Esophagus- passageway where peristalsis pushes food to stomach.
B. Digestion- Mechanical and Chemical- breakdown of large nutrient molecules into smaller molecules that can be absorbed.
1. Mechanical Digestion- occurs when food is divided into pieces that can be acted on by the digestive enzymes; occurs primarily in the mouth and stomach.
2. Chemical Digestion- begins in the mouth and is not completed until food reaches the small intestine; produces chyme (thick semifluid mass of partly digested food that is passed from the stomach to the small intestine).
a. Stomach- secretes acid and digestive enzyme for protein; churns, mixing food with secretions, and sends chyme to the small intestine.
b. Liver- major metabolic organ- processes and stores nutrients and produces bile for emulsification of fats.
c. Gallbladder- stores bile from liver and sends it to the small intestine.
d. Pancreas- produces pancreatic juice that contains digestive enzymes, and sends it to the small intestine; produces insulin and secretes it into the blood after eating.
C.Movement- GI tract contents moving along the digestive tract is very important. In order for the tract to fulfill it's other functions, movement must occur.
D. Absorbtion- occurs as unit molecules, produced by digestion, cross the wall of the GI tract, enter the cells lining the tract, and then the nutrients enter the blood for delivery to the cells.
1. Small Intestine- mixes chyme with digestive enzymes for final breakdown; absorbs nutrient molecules into the body; secretes digestive hormones into the blood.
2. Large Intestine- absorbs water and salt to form feces.
E. Elimination- the removal of indigestable wastes through the anus, in the form of feces, by defecation.
1. Rectum- stores and regulates elimination of feces.
2. Anus- outlet of the digestive tract.
F. Wall of the digestive Tract
1. Lumen- the central space that contains water/food being digested.
2. Mucosa- inner mucous membrane layer that is modified according to the digestive organ.
3. Submucosa- broad band of loose connective tissue that contains nerves, blood, and lymphatic vessels.
4. Muscularis- two layers of smooth muscle.
5. Serosa- thin, outermost tissue that is the visceral peritoneum.
II. The First Part of the Digestive Tract
A. The Mouth- recieves food and begins mechanical and chemical digestion.
1. Componants- hard palate, soft palate, uvula, tonsils, salivary glands, tongue, and teeth.
2. The teeth chew the food and break it down for digestion, and the tongue pushes it toward the throat.
a. Teeth- 8 incisors, 4 canines, 8 premolars, and 12 molars.
B. The Pharnyx and Esophagus
1. When you swallow food, the tongue pushes the bolus of food up against the soft palate, which closes of the pharnyx. The epiglottis closes off the glottis so that food enters the esophagus and not the lungs.
2. Peristalsis, a rythmic contraction, pushes the bolus down through the esophagus until it hits the lower esophageal spincter, which relaxes, and the food enters the stomach.
III. The Stomach and Small Intestine
A. The stomach expands and stores food, and then churns, mixing it with the acidic gastric juices.
1. Gastric juices contain pepsin, an enzyme that digests protein.
B. Duodenum- recieves bile from the liver and the pancreatic juice from the pancreas.
1. Bile- emulsifies fat and readies it for digestion by lipase.
C. Pancreas- produces enzymes that digest starch, protein, and fat.
1. Pancreatic Amylase- digests starch.
2. Trypsin- digests protein.
3. Lipase- digests fat.
4. The intestinal enzymes finish the process of chemical digestion.
D. Small nutrient molecules are absorbed at the villi in the small intestine walls.
IV. Three Accessory Organs and Regulation of Secretions
A. Three accessory organs of digestion send secretions to the duodenum via ducts. The three organs are the pancreas, liver, and gallbladder.
1. Pancreas- produces pancreatic juice, which contains digestive enzymes for carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.
2. Liver- produces bile, destroys old blood cells, detoxifies blood, stores iron, makes plasma proteins, stores glucose as glycogen, breaks down glycogen to glucose, produces urea, and helps regulate blood cholesterol levels.
3. Gallbladder- stores bile, which is produced by the liver.
B. The secretions of digestive juices are controlled by the nervous system and by hormones.
1. Gastrin- produced by the lower part of the stomach, stimulating, via the bloodstream, the upper part of the stomach to secrete pepsin.
2. Secretin and CCK- produced by the duodenal wall, stimulating the pancreas to secrete juices, and the gallbladder to release bile.
V. The Large Intestine and Defecation
A. Large Intestine
1. Consists of the cecum, the colon (ascending, transverse, and descending), and the rectum.
2. Absorbs water, salts, and some vitamins, forms feces, and carries out defecation.
B. Defecation- discharge of feces from the rectum through the anus.
C. Disorders of the Large Intestine
1. Diverticulosis, Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS), Inflammatory Bowel Disease, Polyps, and Colon Cancer.
VI. Nutrition and Weight Control
A. Obesity- being grossly overweight; defined by body mass index (BMI).
1. Healthy BMI- 19.1 to 26.4; Overweight BMI- 26.5 to 31.1; Obese BMI- 32.3 to 39.9; Morbidly Obese BMI- 40 or more.
B. Classes of Nutrients
1. Nutrient- a componant of food that performs a physiological function in the body.
a. Carbohydrates- the preferred energy source for the body, but select carbohydrates in whole grains, beans, nuts, and fruits, contain fiber, vitamins, and minerals in addition to carbohydrates.
b. Proteins- sufficient proteins are needed to supply the essential amino acids. Meat and dairy sources of protein may supply unwanted saturated fat, but vegetable sources do not.
c. Lipids- Unsaturated fats, such as those in oils, do not lead to cardiovascular disease and are preferred. Fats and oils contain many more calories per gram than do carbohydrates and protein.
d. Minerals- major and trace- the body contains more than 5 grams of each major mineral, and less than 5 grams of each trace mineral.
d1. Major: Calcium (Ca²+), Phosphorus (PO4³-), Potassium (K+), Sulfur (S²-), Sodium (Na+), Chloride (Cl-), and Magnesium (Mg²+).
d2. Trace: Zinc (Zn²+), Iron (Fe²+), Copper (Cu²+), Iodine (I-), Selenium (SeO4²-), and Manganese (Mn²+).
e. Vitamins- organic compounds (other than carbohydrate, fat, and protein) that the body uses for metabolic purposes, but is unable to produce in adequate quantity.
e1. Fat- soluble: Vitamin A, D, E, and K.
e2. Water- soluble: Vitamin C, Thiamine (B1), Riboflavin (B2), Niacin (Nicotinic Acid), Folacin (Folic Acid), B6, Pantothenic Acid, B12, and Biotin.
C. How to Plan Nutritious Meals
1. Eat a variety of foods from all food groups.
a. Grains- 6 oz. daily
b. Vegetables- 2 ½ cups daily
c. Fruits- 2 cups daily
d. Dairy- 3 cups daily (Ages 2-8, 2 cups)
e. Meat and Beans- 5 ½ oz. daily
f. Oils- small amounts daily
D. Eating Disorders
1. Anorexia Nervosa- a severe psychological disorder characterized by an irrational fear of getting fat, that results in the refusal to eat enough food to maintain a healthy weight.
2. Bulimia Nervosa- eating disorder characterized by binge eating followed by purging, via self induced vomiting or use of a laxative.
3. Muscle Dysmorphia- mental state where a person thinks their body is underdeveloped, and becomes preoccupied with body- building and diet; affects more men than women.
Monday, June 23, 2008
Unit 2 Lab 1- Blood Pressure
State a problem about the relationship of age and gender to blood pressure.
When it comes to blood pressure, age and gender don't necessarily have anything to do with whether the person will have hypertension. There's also family history to look at, and every person is different. However, it does increase with age because the heart works harder.
Use your knowledge about the heart and the circulatory system to make a hypothesis about how the average blood pressure for a group of people would be affected by manipulating the age and gender of the group members.
Younger people will not have as many with BP problems as the older will, and men will have more problems than women. Also, BP will increase with age.
How will you use the investigation screen to test your hypothesis? What steps will you follow?
How will you use the investigation screen to test your hypothesis? What steps will you follow?
What data will you record?
I will have people of different ages and different sexes, and will follow all steps and record all data for an accurate study.
Analyze the result of your experiment. Explain any patterns you observed.
My observations were just as I had hoped. The BP of an average male is higher than an average female. Also, there were more cases if hypertension among men than women.
Did the result of your experiment support your hypothesis? Why or why not? Based on your experiment what conclusion can you draw about the relationship of age and gender to group blood pressure averages?
Yes, my experiment did support my hypothesis. Based on my data, I have found that the blood pressure of an average male is higher than that of an average female. Also, there were more cases of Hypertension among men than women, especially in the 45- 54 age group. Therefore, a man, age 45- 54, has a better chance of having high blood pressure then a woman of the same age range. But, a male, age 18- 24, has less of a chance then the older women, and a younger woman less than the younger man.
During the course of your experiment, did you obtain any blood pressure reading that were outside of the normal range for the group being tested? What did you notice on the medical charts for these individuals that might explain their high reading?
Of the 100 people I examined, 7 males and 6 females had above normal blood pressure. Of those 13 people, 5 claimed they don't exercise much, if at all, 4 claimed they have a high salt diet, 4 claimed to have a family history, 3 claimed they consume alcohol, and 3 claimed they had none of the above.
List risk factors associated with the hypertension. Based on your observation, which risk factor do you think is most closely associated with hypertension?
*Lack of exercise- exercise is good for the heart because it's a muscle. The more out of shape you are, the more out of shape your heart is, and it has to work harder.
*High Salt diet- some salt is good, but too much can be bad for you.
*Alcohol consumption- Alcohol is not good for your liver, which is a filter.
*Family history- You can't stop history, but if you treat your body well, you can delay the inevitable.
I would say that the risk factor most closely associated with hypertension is lack of exercise.
What effect might obesity have on blood pressure? Does obesity alone cause a person to be at risk for high blood pressure? What other factors, in combination with obesity, might increase a person's risk for high blood pressure?
*High Salt diet- some salt is good, but too much can be bad for you.
*Alcohol consumption- Alcohol is not good for your liver, which is a filter.
*Family history- You can't stop history, but if you treat your body well, you can delay the inevitable.
I would say that the risk factor most closely associated with hypertension is lack of exercise.
What effect might obesity have on blood pressure? Does obesity alone cause a person to be at risk for high blood pressure? What other factors, in combination with obesity, might increase a person's risk for high blood pressure?
I would have to say that obesity would most likely raise the blood pressure. Obesity alone does not cause high blood pressure, but it definitely does increase the risk. Most obese people are that way because of their lack of exercise, high salt diets, and in some cases, alcohol consumption. There may also be a family history of high blood pressure, which is precisely why an at risk obese person should drop the weight. They may get it anyway, but dropping the weight may delay it or stop it all together.
Unit 2 Compendium 1 pictures
Cardiovascular System
Blood Vessels
Flow of Blood Through the Heart
Blood Pressure
Exchange in the Capillaries
Artificial Heart
RBC,Platelet, and WBC
ABO Blood Type
Homeostasis
Microbes and Pathogens
Lymphatic System
T and B Cells
Allergies
HIV
HIV Phases
HIV Life Cycle
AIDS Cocktail
Cardiovascular System http://www.daviddarling.info/images/circulatory_system.jpg
Blood Vessels http://www.accessexcellence.org/AE/AEC/CC/images/vessel.gif
Blood Flow Through the Heart http://www.daviddarling.info/images/heart.gif
Blood Pressure http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/science/lifescience/generalbiology/Phisiology/CirculatorySystem/Circulatory System/Vertebrate/bloodvessels_3.gif
Capillary Exchange http://media-2.web.britannica.com/eb-media/37/92937-034.jpg
Artificial Heart http://dsc.discovery.com/news/2006/09/06/gallery/artificialheart_zoom.jpg
Blood Cells http://leavingbio.net/Bloob_files/image010.jpg
Blood Types http://blogsci.com/images/ABO_blood_type.jpg
Homeostasis http://ecodelink.com/images/081404/homeostasis2.jpg
Microbes and Pathogens http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v4/n3/images/nrg1019-f2.jpg
Lymphatic System http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Forum/6100/1lymphaticspic.gif
B and T Cells http://www.medscape.com/content/2002/00/44/43/444383/art-444383.fig1.jpg
Allergies http://z.about.com/d/firstaid/1/0/F/-/-/-/allergies.jpg
HIV http://www.niaid.nih.gov/daids/dtpdb/graphics/hiv.gif
HIV Phases http://www.nature.com/nrmicro/journal/v1/n3/images/nrmicro772-f2.jpg
HIV Life Cycle http://www.gladstone.ucsf.edu/gladstone/files/publicaffairs/HIVlifeCycle.gif
AIDS Cocktail http://wwwimage.cbsnews.com/images/2003/01/24/image537878x.jpg
Blood Vessels
Flow of Blood Through the Heart
Blood Pressure
Exchange in the Capillaries
Artificial Heart
RBC,Platelet, and WBC
ABO Blood Type
Homeostasis
Microbes and Pathogens
Lymphatic System
T and B Cells
Allergies
HIV
HIV Phases
HIV Life Cycle
AIDS Cocktail
Cardiovascular System http://www.daviddarling.info/images/circulatory_system.jpg
Blood Vessels http://www.accessexcellence.org/AE/AEC/CC/images/vessel.gif
Blood Flow Through the Heart http://www.daviddarling.info/images/heart.gif
Blood Pressure http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/science/lifescience/generalbiology/Phisiology/CirculatorySystem/Circulatory System/Vertebrate/bloodvessels_3.gif
Capillary Exchange http://media-2.web.britannica.com/eb-media/37/92937-034.jpg
Artificial Heart http://dsc.discovery.com/news/2006/09/06/gallery/artificialheart_zoom.jpg
Blood Cells http://leavingbio.net/Bloob_files/image010.jpg
Blood Types http://blogsci.com/images/ABO_blood_type.jpg
Homeostasis http://ecodelink.com/images/081404/homeostasis2.jpg
Microbes and Pathogens http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v4/n3/images/nrg1019-f2.jpg
Lymphatic System http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Forum/6100/1lymphaticspic.gif
B and T Cells http://www.medscape.com/content/2002/00/44/43/444383/art-444383.fig1.jpg
Allergies http://z.about.com/d/firstaid/1/0/F/-/-/-/allergies.jpg
HIV http://www.niaid.nih.gov/daids/dtpdb/graphics/hiv.gif
HIV Phases http://www.nature.com/nrmicro/journal/v1/n3/images/nrmicro772-f2.jpg
HIV Life Cycle http://www.gladstone.ucsf.edu/gladstone/files/publicaffairs/HIVlifeCycle.gif
AIDS Cocktail http://wwwimage.cbsnews.com/images/2003/01/24/image537878x.jpg
Unit 2 Compendium 1- Maintenance of the Human Body
Table of Contents
I. Cardiovascular System: Heart and Blood Vessels
A. Overview of the Cardiovascular System
B. The Types of Blood Vessels
C. The Heart is a Double Pump
D. Features of the Cardiovascular System
E. Two Cardiovascular Pathways
F. Exchange at the Capillaries
G. Cardiovascular Disorders
II. Cardiovascular System: Blood
A. Blood: An Overview
B. Red Blood Cells and Transport of Oxygen
C. White Blood Cells and Defense Against Disease
D. Platelets and Blood Clotting
E. Blood Typing and Transfusions
F. Homeostasis
III. Lymphatic System and Immunity
A. Microbes and Pathogens
B. The Lymphatic System
C. Nonspecific Defenses
D. Specific Defenses
E. Acquired Immunity
F. Hypersensitivity Reactions
IV. AIDS Supplement
A. Origin and Prevalence of HIV
B. Phases of an HIV Infection
C. HIV Structure and Life Cycle
I. Cardiovascular System: Heart and Blood Vessels
A. Overview of the Cardiovascular System
1. Contractions of the heart generates blood pressure, which moves blood through blood vessels.
2. Blood vessels transport blood, which moves from the heart into arteries, capillaries, and veins, before returning to the heart.
3. Exchanges at the capillaries (the smallest of the blood vessels) refreshes blood and then tissue fluid, sometimes called interstitial fluid.
4. The heart and blood vessels regulate blood flow, according to the needs of the body.
B. The Types of Blood Vessels
1. Arteries: blood flows from the heart to the body.
2. Capillaries: moves blood from the Arteries to the Veins.
3. Veins: blood flows from the body to the heart.
C. The Heart is a Double Pump
1. The heart has a right and left side, each having an Atrium and a Ventricle. Valves keep the blood moving in the correct direction.
2. Passage of blood through the heart.
a. The right atrium recieves O2 poor blood from the body, and the right ventricle pumps it into the lungs.
b. The left atrium recieves the O2 rich blood from the lungs, and the left ventricle pumps it to the rest of the body.
3. The heart beat is controlled.
a. The SA node initiates the heartbeat by causing the atria to contract, then the AV node conveys the stimulus to the ventricles, causing them to contract.
b. "Lub-Dub" is caused from the closing of the atrioventricular valves, followed by the closing of the semilunar valves.
D. Features of the Cardiovascular System.
1.Pulse- rythmic expansion and recoil of an atrial wall; felt at radial or carotid artery.
2. Blood Pressure- pressure of blood against the wall of a blood vessel.
a. Systolic pressure- Arterial blood pressure during the systolic phase of the cardiac cycle; ejection of blood from the heart.
b. Diastolic pressure- Arterial blood pressure during the diastolic phase of the cardiac cycle; relaxation of the heart ventricles.
E. Two Cardiovascular Pathways.
1. Pulmonary Circuit: Exchange of Gases- O2 poor blood leaves the heart through the pulmonary artery, exchanges CO2 for O2, and then travels back to the heart through the pulmonary vein.
2. Systemic Circuit: Exchanges with Tissue Fluid- 60,000 miles of veins and arteries.
a. Tracing the path of blood- Left Ventricle-> Aorta-> Common Iliac Artery-> Femoral Artery-> Lower Leg Capillaries-> Femoral Vein-> Common Iliac Vein-> Inferior Vena Cava-> Right Atrium.
b. Coronary Arteries- supply blood to the wall of the heart; connected to the Aorta.
Hepatic Portal Vein- takes blood from the capillary bed of the digestive tract to a capillary bed in the liver.
F. Exchange at the Capillaries.
1. Water, oxygen, amino acids, and glucose leave the capillary when there is more blood pressure and less osmotic pressure (on the artery side).
2. Carbon dioxide, wastes, and water enter the capillary when there is less blood pressure and more osmotic pressure (on the vein side).
G. Cardiovascular Disorders
1. Disorders of the blood vessels.
a. Aneurysm, High Blood Pressure (Hypertension), Low Blood Pressure (Hypotension), Atherosclerosis, Thrombus, Embolus, Thromboembolism, Plaque, Stroke, Heart Attack, Angina Pectoris, Blood Clots.
b. Treating Artery Disorders- Coronary Bypass Operation, dissolve blood clots using t-PA or a blood thinner, Angioplasty, Stents.
2.Disorders of the Heart.
a. Bicuspid or Tricuspid regurgitation, heart failure, Atrium Fibrilation (A-fib), Ventricular Fibrilation (V-fib).
b. Treatment of Heart Disorders- Heart transplant, artificial valves, pacemaker, artificial heart.
II. Cardiovascular System: Blood
A. Blood: An Overview
1. Functions- primary transport for O2 and CO2, defends the body against invasion by pathogens, and helps regulate body temperature through it'd pH.
2. Composition of Blood.
a. Formed Elements- Red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
b. Plasma- plasma proteins, osmotic pressure, albumins, globulins, and fibrinogen.
B. Red Blood Cells and Transport of Oxygen.
1. Blood carries O2 through Hemoglobin (makes red blood cells red); The globin portion of the hemoglobin is a protein that contains 4 highly folded polypeptide chains, while the heme part of hemoglobin is an iron-containing group in the center of each polypeptide chain (iron accepts the O2 in the lungs and lets go of it in the tissue).
2. Blood transports CO2 through plasma- 7% is dissolved in the plasma, 25% is transported by the globin in the blood cell, and the left over 68% is transported as bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) in the plasma.
3. Red Blood Cells are produced in Bone Marrow.
a. Blood Doping- delivers O2 more efficiently and reduces fatigue- A low O2 blood level makes the kidneys increase production of erythropoietin, which makes the stem cells increase red blood cell production. Increase in RBC production makes the O2 level normal again.
4. Red blood cell disorders.
a. Anemia (low iron), Hemolysis (rupturing RBCs), Sickle-Cell Disease.
C. White Blood Cell and Defense Against Disease.
1. Types of WBCs: Granular and Agranular Leukocytes.
a. Granular Leukocytes- neutrophils, eosiniphils, and basophils. Neutrophils are abundant and respond to infections first. They phagocytize pathogens.
b. Agranular Leukocytes- monocytes and lymphocytes. Monocytes are the largest WBC and can become macrophages the phagocytize pathogens and cellular debris. Lymphocytes (B and T cells) are responsible for specific immunity.
D. Platelets and Blood Clotting.
1. When a blood vessel is puctured, platelets congregate and form a plug. Then platelets and damaged tissue cells release prothrombin activator, which initiates a cascade of enzymatic reactions (prothrombin to thrombin, and fibrinogen to fibrin threads). Finally, fibrin threads form and trap red blood cells.
2. Disorders related to blood clotting.
a. Thrombocytopenia (low platelet count), Thromboembolism (blood clot), Hemophilia (lack of clotting factor).
E. Blood Typing and Transfusions.
1. ABO blood groups
a. Type A blood- have type A surface antigens, and anti- B antibodies in the plasma.
b. Type B blood- have type B surface antigens, and anti- A antibodies in the plasma.
c. Type AB blood- have type A and type B surface antigens, and no anti- A or anti- B antibodies.
d. Type O blood- has no surface antigens, and both anti-A and anti-B antibodies in the plasma.
2. Blood compatability for transfusions.
a. Blood compatability is very important when transfusions are done. Blood- type matching must be done before a blood transfusion is performed to observe whether agglutination will occur between the donor and recipients blood.
3. Rh blood groups.
a. the Rh factor determines the positive or negative in blood type.
b. In a pregnancy where the child is Rh+ and the mother is Rh-, the Rh+ RBCs leak across the placenta into the mother's blood stream, where she forms anti- Rh antibodies. The antibodies then cross the placenta into the child and attack it's RBCs, causing Hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN), which can lead to brain damage, mental retardation, or death.
F. Homeostasis- Maintenance of normal internal conditions in a cell or an organism by means of self-regulating mechanisms.
1. What each system does:
a. Cardiovascular System- blood vessels transport O2 and nutrients to the cells of all organs and transports wastes away from them.
b. Nervous System- nerves help regulate the contraction of the heart and the contraction/ dilation of blood vessels.
c. Endocrine System- blood vessels transport hormones from glands to their target organ.
d. Respiratory system- blood vessels transport gases to and from the lungs.
e. Digestive system- blood vessels deliver nutrients from the digestive tract, which provides the molecules needed for plasma protein formation and blood cell formation, through the blood.
f. Urinary system- kidneys excrete wastes, through the blood vessels, and help regulate the water- salt balance necessary to maintain blood volume and pressure and help regulate the acid- base balance of the blood.
g. Lymphatic system- helps maintain blood volume by collecting excess tissue fluid and returning it via lymphatic vessels to the cardiovascular veins.
h. Muscular system- muscles contract to keep blood moving through the heart and blood vessels, particularly veins.
i. Skeletal system- the rib cage protects the heart, red bone marrow produces blood cells, and bones store Ca2+ for blood clotting.
III. Lymphatic System and Immunity
A. Microbes and Pathogens.
1. Bacteria- single celled prokaryotes that don't have a nucleus.
a. Shapes of bacteria: Bacillus (rod), Coccus (spherical), and Spirillum (curved).
2. Viruses- acellular (not composed of cells), obligate parasites that do not live independently.
a. Viruses cause: colds, flu, measles, chicken pox, polio, rabies, AIDS,genetal warts, herpes.
3. Prions- proteinaceous infectious particles, cause a group of degenerative diseases of the nervous system.
a. Prions cause: Creutzfeldt- Jakob disease (CJD) in humans, Scrapie in sheep, and Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (Mad Cow Disease).
B. The Lymphatic System.
1. The Primary Lymphatic Organs.
a. Red Bone Marrow- produces all types of blood cells.
b. Thymus Gland- lymphatic tissue where T lymphocytes mature.
2. Secondard Lymphatic Organs.
a. Spleen- filters the blood.
b. Lymph Nodes- cleanse lymph and alert the immune system of pathogens.
c. Lymph Nodules- concentrations of lymph tissue.
d. Tonsils- same function as lymph nodes, but are the first to encounter pathogens and antigens, by way of the nose and mouth.
e. Peyer's patches- encounter pathogens by way of the intestinal tract.
C. Nonspecific Defenses
1. Immunity- the ability to combat diseases and cancer, includes lines of defense.
a. Barriers to entry.
b. The inflammatory reaction, which involves the phagocytic neutrophils and macrophages.
c. Protective proteins.
D. Specific Defenses
1. B cells and Antibody- Mediated Immunity
a. After activation, the B cells combine with a specific antigen, then undergo clonal selection, which produces plasma cells and memory B cells.
b. Plasma cells secrete antibodies and undergo apoptosis (the process of programmed cell death); Plasma cells are responsible for antibody- mediated immunity.
c. Memory B cells stay in the body to produce antibodies if the same antigen enters the body at a later date.
2. T cells and Cell- Mediated Immunity.
a. T cells recognize an antigen if it is presented by a macrophage with an HLA (Human Leukocyte Antigen).
b. Activated T cells undergo clonal expansion until the illness has been stemmed. Most undergo apoptosis, the rest stay as memory T cells.
c. Two main types of T cells: Cytotoxic (kill virus- infected cells on contact), and Helper (produce cytokines and stimulate other immune cells).
E. Aquired Immunity
1. Active Immunity
a. Immunizations, or Vaccines, are substances that contain an antigen to which the immune system responds.
2. Passive Immunity
a. Gamma Globulin Injection- serum that contains antibodies.
b. Cytokines- sinaling molecules produced by T lymphocytes, macrophages, and other cells, that regulate while blood cell formaton and/ or function.
F. Hypersensitivity Reactions
1. Allergies- Hypersensitivity to substances, such as pollen, food, or animal hair, that ordinarily would not harm the body.
a. Anaphylactic shock- an immediate and life threatening allergic response that occurs because the allergen, such as a bee sting or penicillin shot, has entered the bloodstream, and requires immediate medical attention.
2. Tissue Rejection- recipient's immune system recognizes that the transplanted tissue is not its own, and rejects the transplant.
3. Disorders of the Immune System
a. Auto-immune disease, myasthenia gravis, multiple sclerosis (MS), systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), rheumatoid arthritis, AIDS, and severe combined immunodeficiency disease (SCID).
IV. AIDS Supplement
A. Origin and Prevalence of HIV
1. Pandemic- the disease is prevalent in the entire human population around the world.
a. Sub-Saharan Africa (24.5 million infected) and Asia (8.3 million)
b. Latin America (1.6 million) and the Caribbean (330,000)
c. North America (1.3 million), Europe and Central Asia (3.5 million)
d. North Africa and the Middle East (440,000)
e. Oceania (78,000)
B. Phases of an HIV Infection
1. Category A: Acute Phase
a. no apparent symptoms, highly infectious, and a CD4 T cell count never below 500 cells per mm³ of blood.
b. An HIV antibody test usually comes up negative because it usually takes about 25 days for detectable levels of HIV antibodies in body fluid.
2. Category B: Chronic Phase
a. CD4 count between 499 and 200 cells per mm³, and one or more symptoms related to an impaired immune system.
1. Yeast infection of the mouth or vagina, cervical dysplasia, prolonged diarrhea, hairy leukoplakia, shingles, swollen lymph nodes, unexplained persistant or recurrent fevers, fatigue, and/or cough.
3. Category C: AIDS
a. CD4 cell count below 200 cells per mm³, or has one or more of the 25 AIDS defining illnesses.
b. Some opportunistic infections:
1. Pneumocystis Jiroveci Pneumonia- a fungal infection of the lungs.
2. Mycobacterium Tuberculosis- a bacterial infection usually of lymph nodes or lungs but may be spread to other organs.
3. Toxoplasmic Encephalitis- a protozoan parasistic infection, often seen in the brain.
4. Kaposi's Sarcoma- an unusual cancer of the blood vessels, which gives rise to reddish purple, coin- sized spots and lesions on the skin.
5. Invasive Cervical Cancer- a cancer of the cervix, which spreads to nearby tissues.
C. HIV Structure and Life Cycle
1.HIV is made up of: two single strands of RNA, various proteins, an envelope that it gets from the host cell, and three protective protein coats (nucleocapsid, capsid, and matrix).
2. Three important enzymes within the matrix.
a. Reverse Transcriptase- catalyzes reverse transcription, which is the conversion of the viral RNA to viral DNA.
b. Integrase- catalyzes the integration of viral DNA into the DNA of the host cell.
c. Protease- catalyzes the breakdown of the newly synthesized viral polypeptides into functional viral proteins.
3. HIV Life Cycle
a. Attachment, fusion, entry, reverse transcription, integration, biosynthesis and cleavage, assembly, and budding.
4. Transmission and Prevention of HIV
a. Transmission
a1. Sexual contact (vaginal, rectal, or oral), needle- sharing with intravenous drugs, genetic passdown, and, very rarely, from a blood or clotting factor transfusion.
a2. Highest concentration of HIV is in blood, semen, vaginal fluid, and breast milk.
5. HIV Testing and Treatment
a. HIV tests do not test for HIV, they test for the presence of HIV antibodies.
a1. Antibodies do not show until 2 weeks to 6 months after infection occurs, and test results can take weeks.
b. Drug Therapy
b1. There is no cure for AIDS, but the Highly Active Antiretrovirus Therapy (HAART) will usually slow down the progression of the virus, giving the patient extra years of life. Hoever, the patient must stay on a regimen or the virus will become drug resistant.
c. Vaccines
c1. In 2006, 27 preventative vacines were used in human trials, but the results will not be in until 2010.
I. Cardiovascular System: Heart and Blood Vessels
A. Overview of the Cardiovascular System
B. The Types of Blood Vessels
C. The Heart is a Double Pump
D. Features of the Cardiovascular System
E. Two Cardiovascular Pathways
F. Exchange at the Capillaries
G. Cardiovascular Disorders
II. Cardiovascular System: Blood
A. Blood: An Overview
B. Red Blood Cells and Transport of Oxygen
C. White Blood Cells and Defense Against Disease
D. Platelets and Blood Clotting
E. Blood Typing and Transfusions
F. Homeostasis
III. Lymphatic System and Immunity
A. Microbes and Pathogens
B. The Lymphatic System
C. Nonspecific Defenses
D. Specific Defenses
E. Acquired Immunity
F. Hypersensitivity Reactions
IV. AIDS Supplement
A. Origin and Prevalence of HIV
B. Phases of an HIV Infection
C. HIV Structure and Life Cycle
I. Cardiovascular System: Heart and Blood Vessels
A. Overview of the Cardiovascular System
1. Contractions of the heart generates blood pressure, which moves blood through blood vessels.
2. Blood vessels transport blood, which moves from the heart into arteries, capillaries, and veins, before returning to the heart.
3. Exchanges at the capillaries (the smallest of the blood vessels) refreshes blood and then tissue fluid, sometimes called interstitial fluid.
4. The heart and blood vessels regulate blood flow, according to the needs of the body.
B. The Types of Blood Vessels
1. Arteries: blood flows from the heart to the body.
2. Capillaries: moves blood from the Arteries to the Veins.
3. Veins: blood flows from the body to the heart.
C. The Heart is a Double Pump
1. The heart has a right and left side, each having an Atrium and a Ventricle. Valves keep the blood moving in the correct direction.
2. Passage of blood through the heart.
a. The right atrium recieves O2 poor blood from the body, and the right ventricle pumps it into the lungs.
b. The left atrium recieves the O2 rich blood from the lungs, and the left ventricle pumps it to the rest of the body.
3. The heart beat is controlled.
a. The SA node initiates the heartbeat by causing the atria to contract, then the AV node conveys the stimulus to the ventricles, causing them to contract.
b. "Lub-Dub" is caused from the closing of the atrioventricular valves, followed by the closing of the semilunar valves.
D. Features of the Cardiovascular System.
1.Pulse- rythmic expansion and recoil of an atrial wall; felt at radial or carotid artery.
2. Blood Pressure- pressure of blood against the wall of a blood vessel.
a. Systolic pressure- Arterial blood pressure during the systolic phase of the cardiac cycle; ejection of blood from the heart.
b. Diastolic pressure- Arterial blood pressure during the diastolic phase of the cardiac cycle; relaxation of the heart ventricles.
E. Two Cardiovascular Pathways.
1. Pulmonary Circuit: Exchange of Gases- O2 poor blood leaves the heart through the pulmonary artery, exchanges CO2 for O2, and then travels back to the heart through the pulmonary vein.
2. Systemic Circuit: Exchanges with Tissue Fluid- 60,000 miles of veins and arteries.
a. Tracing the path of blood- Left Ventricle-> Aorta-> Common Iliac Artery-> Femoral Artery-> Lower Leg Capillaries-> Femoral Vein-> Common Iliac Vein-> Inferior Vena Cava-> Right Atrium.
b. Coronary Arteries- supply blood to the wall of the heart; connected to the Aorta.
Hepatic Portal Vein- takes blood from the capillary bed of the digestive tract to a capillary bed in the liver.
F. Exchange at the Capillaries.
1. Water, oxygen, amino acids, and glucose leave the capillary when there is more blood pressure and less osmotic pressure (on the artery side).
2. Carbon dioxide, wastes, and water enter the capillary when there is less blood pressure and more osmotic pressure (on the vein side).
G. Cardiovascular Disorders
1. Disorders of the blood vessels.
a. Aneurysm, High Blood Pressure (Hypertension), Low Blood Pressure (Hypotension), Atherosclerosis, Thrombus, Embolus, Thromboembolism, Plaque, Stroke, Heart Attack, Angina Pectoris, Blood Clots.
b. Treating Artery Disorders- Coronary Bypass Operation, dissolve blood clots using t-PA or a blood thinner, Angioplasty, Stents.
2.Disorders of the Heart.
a. Bicuspid or Tricuspid regurgitation, heart failure, Atrium Fibrilation (A-fib), Ventricular Fibrilation (V-fib).
b. Treatment of Heart Disorders- Heart transplant, artificial valves, pacemaker, artificial heart.
II. Cardiovascular System: Blood
A. Blood: An Overview
1. Functions- primary transport for O2 and CO2, defends the body against invasion by pathogens, and helps regulate body temperature through it'd pH.
2. Composition of Blood.
a. Formed Elements- Red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
b. Plasma- plasma proteins, osmotic pressure, albumins, globulins, and fibrinogen.
B. Red Blood Cells and Transport of Oxygen.
1. Blood carries O2 through Hemoglobin (makes red blood cells red); The globin portion of the hemoglobin is a protein that contains 4 highly folded polypeptide chains, while the heme part of hemoglobin is an iron-containing group in the center of each polypeptide chain (iron accepts the O2 in the lungs and lets go of it in the tissue).
2. Blood transports CO2 through plasma- 7% is dissolved in the plasma, 25% is transported by the globin in the blood cell, and the left over 68% is transported as bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) in the plasma.
3. Red Blood Cells are produced in Bone Marrow.
a. Blood Doping- delivers O2 more efficiently and reduces fatigue- A low O2 blood level makes the kidneys increase production of erythropoietin, which makes the stem cells increase red blood cell production. Increase in RBC production makes the O2 level normal again.
4. Red blood cell disorders.
a. Anemia (low iron), Hemolysis (rupturing RBCs), Sickle-Cell Disease.
C. White Blood Cell and Defense Against Disease.
1. Types of WBCs: Granular and Agranular Leukocytes.
a. Granular Leukocytes- neutrophils, eosiniphils, and basophils. Neutrophils are abundant and respond to infections first. They phagocytize pathogens.
b. Agranular Leukocytes- monocytes and lymphocytes. Monocytes are the largest WBC and can become macrophages the phagocytize pathogens and cellular debris. Lymphocytes (B and T cells) are responsible for specific immunity.
D. Platelets and Blood Clotting.
1. When a blood vessel is puctured, platelets congregate and form a plug. Then platelets and damaged tissue cells release prothrombin activator, which initiates a cascade of enzymatic reactions (prothrombin to thrombin, and fibrinogen to fibrin threads). Finally, fibrin threads form and trap red blood cells.
2. Disorders related to blood clotting.
a. Thrombocytopenia (low platelet count), Thromboembolism (blood clot), Hemophilia (lack of clotting factor).
E. Blood Typing and Transfusions.
1. ABO blood groups
a. Type A blood- have type A surface antigens, and anti- B antibodies in the plasma.
b. Type B blood- have type B surface antigens, and anti- A antibodies in the plasma.
c. Type AB blood- have type A and type B surface antigens, and no anti- A or anti- B antibodies.
d. Type O blood- has no surface antigens, and both anti-A and anti-B antibodies in the plasma.
2. Blood compatability for transfusions.
a. Blood compatability is very important when transfusions are done. Blood- type matching must be done before a blood transfusion is performed to observe whether agglutination will occur between the donor and recipients blood.
3. Rh blood groups.
a. the Rh factor determines the positive or negative in blood type.
b. In a pregnancy where the child is Rh+ and the mother is Rh-, the Rh+ RBCs leak across the placenta into the mother's blood stream, where she forms anti- Rh antibodies. The antibodies then cross the placenta into the child and attack it's RBCs, causing Hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN), which can lead to brain damage, mental retardation, or death.
F. Homeostasis- Maintenance of normal internal conditions in a cell or an organism by means of self-regulating mechanisms.
1. What each system does:
a. Cardiovascular System- blood vessels transport O2 and nutrients to the cells of all organs and transports wastes away from them.
b. Nervous System- nerves help regulate the contraction of the heart and the contraction/ dilation of blood vessels.
c. Endocrine System- blood vessels transport hormones from glands to their target organ.
d. Respiratory system- blood vessels transport gases to and from the lungs.
e. Digestive system- blood vessels deliver nutrients from the digestive tract, which provides the molecules needed for plasma protein formation and blood cell formation, through the blood.
f. Urinary system- kidneys excrete wastes, through the blood vessels, and help regulate the water- salt balance necessary to maintain blood volume and pressure and help regulate the acid- base balance of the blood.
g. Lymphatic system- helps maintain blood volume by collecting excess tissue fluid and returning it via lymphatic vessels to the cardiovascular veins.
h. Muscular system- muscles contract to keep blood moving through the heart and blood vessels, particularly veins.
i. Skeletal system- the rib cage protects the heart, red bone marrow produces blood cells, and bones store Ca2+ for blood clotting.
III. Lymphatic System and Immunity
A. Microbes and Pathogens.
1. Bacteria- single celled prokaryotes that don't have a nucleus.
a. Shapes of bacteria: Bacillus (rod), Coccus (spherical), and Spirillum (curved).
2. Viruses- acellular (not composed of cells), obligate parasites that do not live independently.
a. Viruses cause: colds, flu, measles, chicken pox, polio, rabies, AIDS,genetal warts, herpes.
3. Prions- proteinaceous infectious particles, cause a group of degenerative diseases of the nervous system.
a. Prions cause: Creutzfeldt- Jakob disease (CJD) in humans, Scrapie in sheep, and Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (Mad Cow Disease).
B. The Lymphatic System.
1. The Primary Lymphatic Organs.
a. Red Bone Marrow- produces all types of blood cells.
b. Thymus Gland- lymphatic tissue where T lymphocytes mature.
2. Secondard Lymphatic Organs.
a. Spleen- filters the blood.
b. Lymph Nodes- cleanse lymph and alert the immune system of pathogens.
c. Lymph Nodules- concentrations of lymph tissue.
d. Tonsils- same function as lymph nodes, but are the first to encounter pathogens and antigens, by way of the nose and mouth.
e. Peyer's patches- encounter pathogens by way of the intestinal tract.
C. Nonspecific Defenses
1. Immunity- the ability to combat diseases and cancer, includes lines of defense.
a. Barriers to entry.
b. The inflammatory reaction, which involves the phagocytic neutrophils and macrophages.
c. Protective proteins.
D. Specific Defenses
1. B cells and Antibody- Mediated Immunity
a. After activation, the B cells combine with a specific antigen, then undergo clonal selection, which produces plasma cells and memory B cells.
b. Plasma cells secrete antibodies and undergo apoptosis (the process of programmed cell death); Plasma cells are responsible for antibody- mediated immunity.
c. Memory B cells stay in the body to produce antibodies if the same antigen enters the body at a later date.
2. T cells and Cell- Mediated Immunity.
a. T cells recognize an antigen if it is presented by a macrophage with an HLA (Human Leukocyte Antigen).
b. Activated T cells undergo clonal expansion until the illness has been stemmed. Most undergo apoptosis, the rest stay as memory T cells.
c. Two main types of T cells: Cytotoxic (kill virus- infected cells on contact), and Helper (produce cytokines and stimulate other immune cells).
E. Aquired Immunity
1. Active Immunity
a. Immunizations, or Vaccines, are substances that contain an antigen to which the immune system responds.
2. Passive Immunity
a. Gamma Globulin Injection- serum that contains antibodies.
b. Cytokines- sinaling molecules produced by T lymphocytes, macrophages, and other cells, that regulate while blood cell formaton and/ or function.
F. Hypersensitivity Reactions
1. Allergies- Hypersensitivity to substances, such as pollen, food, or animal hair, that ordinarily would not harm the body.
a. Anaphylactic shock- an immediate and life threatening allergic response that occurs because the allergen, such as a bee sting or penicillin shot, has entered the bloodstream, and requires immediate medical attention.
2. Tissue Rejection- recipient's immune system recognizes that the transplanted tissue is not its own, and rejects the transplant.
3. Disorders of the Immune System
a. Auto-immune disease, myasthenia gravis, multiple sclerosis (MS), systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), rheumatoid arthritis, AIDS, and severe combined immunodeficiency disease (SCID).
IV. AIDS Supplement
A. Origin and Prevalence of HIV
1. Pandemic- the disease is prevalent in the entire human population around the world.
a. Sub-Saharan Africa (24.5 million infected) and Asia (8.3 million)
b. Latin America (1.6 million) and the Caribbean (330,000)
c. North America (1.3 million), Europe and Central Asia (3.5 million)
d. North Africa and the Middle East (440,000)
e. Oceania (78,000)
B. Phases of an HIV Infection
1. Category A: Acute Phase
a. no apparent symptoms, highly infectious, and a CD4 T cell count never below 500 cells per mm³ of blood.
b. An HIV antibody test usually comes up negative because it usually takes about 25 days for detectable levels of HIV antibodies in body fluid.
2. Category B: Chronic Phase
a. CD4 count between 499 and 200 cells per mm³, and one or more symptoms related to an impaired immune system.
1. Yeast infection of the mouth or vagina, cervical dysplasia, prolonged diarrhea, hairy leukoplakia, shingles, swollen lymph nodes, unexplained persistant or recurrent fevers, fatigue, and/or cough.
3. Category C: AIDS
a. CD4 cell count below 200 cells per mm³, or has one or more of the 25 AIDS defining illnesses.
b. Some opportunistic infections:
1. Pneumocystis Jiroveci Pneumonia- a fungal infection of the lungs.
2. Mycobacterium Tuberculosis- a bacterial infection usually of lymph nodes or lungs but may be spread to other organs.
3. Toxoplasmic Encephalitis- a protozoan parasistic infection, often seen in the brain.
4. Kaposi's Sarcoma- an unusual cancer of the blood vessels, which gives rise to reddish purple, coin- sized spots and lesions on the skin.
5. Invasive Cervical Cancer- a cancer of the cervix, which spreads to nearby tissues.
C. HIV Structure and Life Cycle
1.HIV is made up of: two single strands of RNA, various proteins, an envelope that it gets from the host cell, and three protective protein coats (nucleocapsid, capsid, and matrix).
2. Three important enzymes within the matrix.
a. Reverse Transcriptase- catalyzes reverse transcription, which is the conversion of the viral RNA to viral DNA.
b. Integrase- catalyzes the integration of viral DNA into the DNA of the host cell.
c. Protease- catalyzes the breakdown of the newly synthesized viral polypeptides into functional viral proteins.
3. HIV Life Cycle
a. Attachment, fusion, entry, reverse transcription, integration, biosynthesis and cleavage, assembly, and budding.
4. Transmission and Prevention of HIV
a. Transmission
a1. Sexual contact (vaginal, rectal, or oral), needle- sharing with intravenous drugs, genetic passdown, and, very rarely, from a blood or clotting factor transfusion.
a2. Highest concentration of HIV is in blood, semen, vaginal fluid, and breast milk.
5. HIV Testing and Treatment
a. HIV tests do not test for HIV, they test for the presence of HIV antibodies.
a1. Antibodies do not show until 2 weeks to 6 months after infection occurs, and test results can take weeks.
b. Drug Therapy
b1. There is no cure for AIDS, but the Highly Active Antiretrovirus Therapy (HAART) will usually slow down the progression of the virus, giving the patient extra years of life. Hoever, the patient must stay on a regimen or the virus will become drug resistant.
c. Vaccines
c1. In 2006, 27 preventative vacines were used in human trials, but the results will not be in until 2010.
Friday, June 13, 2008
Unit 1 Self and Unit Evaluation
Self Evaluation
1. What were the three aspects of the assignments I've submitted that I am most proud of?
My picture choices, my material choices for the cell lab, and my early posting, which helps me out big time on crunch day!
2. What two aspects of my submitted assignments do I believe could have used some improvement?
Definitly the way I put my posts together, and my dependancy on the book.
3. What do I believe my overall grade should be for this unit?
Honestly, I would have to say a mid-range B. I know my stuff, but I'm not worthy of an A.
4. How could I perform better in the next unit?
Now that I know what to expect, and how things are supposed to be done, I can study and post more efficiantly.
Unit Evaluation
1.At what moment during this unit did you feel most engaged with the course?
I would have to say the second half of the unit, mostly because I love Genetics!
2.At what moment in this unit did you feel most distanced from the course?
At the beginning. There were a lot of new things for me, and I am easily confused.
3.What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit that you find most affirming and helpful?
I loved the promptness of the teacher. If I had a question, I usually got an answer that same day. That helped out a lot!
4.What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit did you find most puzzling or confusing?
The blog and stuff like that was kind of confusing, mostly because it's new to me.
5.What about this unit surprised you the most? (This could be something about your own reactions to the course, something that someone did, or anything else that occurs to you.)
I didn't think I could learn everything in eight weeks, but I am learning a lot!
1. What were the three aspects of the assignments I've submitted that I am most proud of?
My picture choices, my material choices for the cell lab, and my early posting, which helps me out big time on crunch day!
2. What two aspects of my submitted assignments do I believe could have used some improvement?
Definitly the way I put my posts together, and my dependancy on the book.
3. What do I believe my overall grade should be for this unit?
Honestly, I would have to say a mid-range B. I know my stuff, but I'm not worthy of an A.
4. How could I perform better in the next unit?
Now that I know what to expect, and how things are supposed to be done, I can study and post more efficiantly.
Unit Evaluation
1.At what moment during this unit did you feel most engaged with the course?
I would have to say the second half of the unit, mostly because I love Genetics!
2.At what moment in this unit did you feel most distanced from the course?
At the beginning. There were a lot of new things for me, and I am easily confused.
3.What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit that you find most affirming and helpful?
I loved the promptness of the teacher. If I had a question, I usually got an answer that same day. That helped out a lot!
4.What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit did you find most puzzling or confusing?
The blog and stuff like that was kind of confusing, mostly because it's new to me.
5.What about this unit surprised you the most? (This could be something about your own reactions to the course, something that someone did, or anything else that occurs to you.)
I didn't think I could learn everything in eight weeks, but I am learning a lot!
Ethical Issue Essay 1- Cloning
Cloning, Good or Bad?
Clone: A group of cells or organisms that are genetically identical as a result of asexual reproduction, breeding of completely inbred organisms, or forming genetically identical organisms by nuclear transplantation. Cloning is one of the most controversial issues in science today. What is it? Is it good? Is it bad? Why? I asked three people these questions, and to make it a little easier on them, I narrowed it down to three subjects and asked each of them for their opinion on one of the three subjects. The three subjects I chose are cloning for medical purposes, cloning animals, and cloning humans.
The first person I asked was my father-in-law, Earl. I asked him for his opinion on cloning for medical purposes. Being a diabetic and having cardiac problems, I thought he would have an interesting opinion on it. He said that he thought it was a good thing, but a bad thing too. Sure, by cloning organs you can be certain that the patient will not reject it, because it’s an exact copy, but who’s to say it won’t go bad too. Also, how much more will it cost to get a cloned organ over a donor? It’s good that they are able to do it, and it’s probably already saving lives, but who knows. He also had an opinion on animal cloning, but I left that one for my mother.
According to my mother, Jeannine, cloning of animals is, for the most part, a good thing. You can be sure that the quality of meat will be excellent, and you never have to worry about a bad piece. But then you have to think about cost. Because they are cloning them, will the prices of meat go up? Sure, there will be more, but it’s better quality, which always costs more, and with gas prices and everything else going up in price because of gas, now is definitely not the time for it. Cloning animals however, isn’t nearly as controversial as cloning humans.
Lastly, I asked my husband, Keith, what he thought of cloning humans. Being one of the most opinionated people I know, I saved this one for him. According to my husband, cloning humans is scientists trying to play god. There is no need for human cloning, it will only lead to mass racism, man vs. clone, and possibly lead to the apocalypse or a second civil war. Not to mention, how will we be able to keep track of who is the person, and who is the clone? There is no way to be certain that things will happen the way they want it too, because once you clone a person, the clone has its own mind.
Let’s take a look at what my father-in-law, mother, and husband had to say about cloning, and what I think. I would have to say that I agree with all three of them. I think that cloning things for medical reasons is a great idea, but cost is definitely a concern. I think that cloning animals for quality not quantity is a great idea, but again, cost is a concern. And lastly, I think that cloning people is a horrible idea. I would hate to see our world crumble and end up like some science fiction story.
Cloning. Will there ever come an end to this controversy? Whether it’s organs, animals, or humans, someone will always have an opinion different from everyone else.
Clone: A group of cells or organisms that are genetically identical as a result of asexual reproduction, breeding of completely inbred organisms, or forming genetically identical organisms by nuclear transplantation. Cloning is one of the most controversial issues in science today. What is it? Is it good? Is it bad? Why? I asked three people these questions, and to make it a little easier on them, I narrowed it down to three subjects and asked each of them for their opinion on one of the three subjects. The three subjects I chose are cloning for medical purposes, cloning animals, and cloning humans.
The first person I asked was my father-in-law, Earl. I asked him for his opinion on cloning for medical purposes. Being a diabetic and having cardiac problems, I thought he would have an interesting opinion on it. He said that he thought it was a good thing, but a bad thing too. Sure, by cloning organs you can be certain that the patient will not reject it, because it’s an exact copy, but who’s to say it won’t go bad too. Also, how much more will it cost to get a cloned organ over a donor? It’s good that they are able to do it, and it’s probably already saving lives, but who knows. He also had an opinion on animal cloning, but I left that one for my mother.
According to my mother, Jeannine, cloning of animals is, for the most part, a good thing. You can be sure that the quality of meat will be excellent, and you never have to worry about a bad piece. But then you have to think about cost. Because they are cloning them, will the prices of meat go up? Sure, there will be more, but it’s better quality, which always costs more, and with gas prices and everything else going up in price because of gas, now is definitely not the time for it. Cloning animals however, isn’t nearly as controversial as cloning humans.
Lastly, I asked my husband, Keith, what he thought of cloning humans. Being one of the most opinionated people I know, I saved this one for him. According to my husband, cloning humans is scientists trying to play god. There is no need for human cloning, it will only lead to mass racism, man vs. clone, and possibly lead to the apocalypse or a second civil war. Not to mention, how will we be able to keep track of who is the person, and who is the clone? There is no way to be certain that things will happen the way they want it too, because once you clone a person, the clone has its own mind.
Let’s take a look at what my father-in-law, mother, and husband had to say about cloning, and what I think. I would have to say that I agree with all three of them. I think that cloning things for medical reasons is a great idea, but cost is definitely a concern. I think that cloning animals for quality not quantity is a great idea, but again, cost is a concern. And lastly, I think that cloning people is a horrible idea. I would hate to see our world crumble and end up like some science fiction story.
Cloning. Will there ever come an end to this controversy? Whether it’s organs, animals, or humans, someone will always have an opinion different from everyone else.
Thursday, June 12, 2008
Build a Cell
Our first off-line lab project is to build a cell using any materials we wanted. One of my favorite places to be is in the kitchen, so I decided to make mine edible. My cell was constructed out of things I found in the pantry and the fridgerator. I hope you enjoy it as much as I did.
Mitosis:
Early Prophase- Centrosomes have duplicated. Chromatin is condensing into chromosomes, and the nuclear envelope is fragmenting.
Prophase- Nucleolus has disappeared, and duplicated chromosomes are visible. Centrosomes begin moving apart, and spindle is in process of forming.
Early Metaphase- Each chromatid is attached to a spindle fiber. Some spindle fibers stretch from each spindle pole and overlap.
Metaphase- Centrosomes of duplicated chromosomes are aligned at the equator (center of the fully formed spindle). Spindle fibers attached to the sister chromatids come from opposite spindle poles.
Anaphase- Sister chromatids part and become daughter chromosomes that
move toward the spindle poles. In this way, each pole recieves the same number and kinds of chromosomes as the parental cell.
Telophase- Daughter cells are forming as nuclear envelopes and nucleoli reappear. Chromosomes will become indistinct chromatin.
This is the very beginning of my project, where I chose my materials.
*Plasma Membrane- glass pie dish
*Nucleus-
*Nucleus-
Nuclear envelope-orange peel
Chromatin- orange's insides
Chromatin- orange's insides
Nucleolus- Atomic Fire Ball
*Endoplasmic Reticulum-
Rough- grahm crackers
Rough- grahm crackers
Smooth- candy corn
*Ribosomes- yellow sprinkles
*Ribosomes- yellow sprinkles
*Polyribosomes- black rice
*Mitochondion- mallowcreams
*Golgi Apparatus- sour gummy worms
*Cytoplasm- orange Jell-O
*Vesicles- green spice drops
*Mitochondion- mallowcreams
*Golgi Apparatus- sour gummy worms
*Cytoplasm- orange Jell-O
*Vesicles- green spice drops*Lysosomes- red spice drops
*Centrosome- Centrioles-peppermint sticks
*Centrosome- Centrioles-peppermint sticks
*Cytoskeleton-
Actin Filaments- red thread
Intermediate Filaments- blue thread
Microtubules- spaghetti noodles
Intermediate Filaments- blue thread
Microtubules- spaghetti noodles
*Proteins- blue sprinkles
*Lipids- orange sprinkles
Enzymes- green sprinkles
*Lipids- orange sprinklesEnzymes- green sprinkles
Picture 1 is all of my materials, picture 2 is during the build, picture 3 is my cell chilling in the fridge (LOL), and picture 4 is the finished product.
Functions:
*Nucleus- the power house of the cell
*Nuclear Envelope- double membrane with nuclear poresthat encloses the nucleus.
*Chromatin- diffuse threads containing protein and DNA.
*Nucleolus- region that produces subunits of ribosomes.
*Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum- studded with ribosomes; aides in protein production.
*Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum- lacks ribosomes; synthesizes lipid molecules.
*Ribosomes- particles that carry out protein synthesis.
*Mitochondrion- organelle that carries out cellular respiration, producing ATP molecules.
*Polyribosome- string of ribosomes simultaneously synthesizing the same protein.
*Golgi Apparatus- processes, packages, and secretes modified cell products.
*Cytoplasm- semifluid matrix outside the nucleus that contains organelles.
*Vesicle- membrane- bounded sac that stores and transports substances.
*Lysosome- vesicle that digests macromolecules and even cell parts.
*Centrosome- microtubule organizing center that contains a pair of centrioles.
*Centrioles- short cylinders of microtubules of unknown function.
*Cytoskeleton- maintains cell shape and assists movement of cell parts.
*Microtubules- cylinders of protein molecules present in cytoplasm, centrioles, cilia, and flagella.
*Intermediate Filaments- protein fibers that provide support and strength.
*Actin Filaments- protein fibers that play a role in movement of cell and organelles.
*Actin Filaments- protein fibers that play a role in movement of cell and organelles.
Now for my models of DNA unzipping to form mRNA, and the process of Mitosis.
This is my model of Transcription, to form mRNA. After that occurs, the mRNA leave the nucleus for Translation, where mRNA combines with ribosomes and tRNA, who carry amino acids, to form amino acid chains, also known as Proteins.
Mitosis:
Early Prophase- Centrosomes have duplicated. Chromatin is condensing into chromosomes, and the nuclear envelope is fragmenting.
Prophase- Nucleolus has disappeared, and duplicated chromosomes are visible. Centrosomes begin moving apart, and spindle is in process of forming.
Early Metaphase- Each chromatid is attached to a spindle fiber. Some spindle fibers stretch from each spindle pole and overlap.Metaphase- Centrosomes of duplicated chromosomes are aligned at the equator (center of the fully formed spindle). Spindle fibers attached to the sister chromatids come from opposite spindle poles.
Anaphase- Sister chromatids part and become daughter chromosomes that
move toward the spindle poles. In this way, each pole recieves the same number and kinds of chromosomes as the parental cell.Telophase- Daughter cells are forming as nuclear envelopes and nucleoli reappear. Chromosomes will become indistinct chromatin.
Cytokinesis- The division of the cytoplasm and organelles.
Well, there's my lab project. I had so much fun making everything, and I learned a lot about cells and how complex they are. I definitly look forward to the next project!
(All photos taken with my Nikon D50, and all definitions are thanks to Sylvia S. Mader, Human Biology, 10e)
Wednesday, June 11, 2008
Genetics Labs- Dragon and Punnett Square
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Photo 1 is of my dragons. I altered the baby's alleles to match the adult.
Photo 2 is of my fruit flies. I crossed their genotypes to find out the offsprings genotypes.
I've always found Genetics to be interesting. I find it to be such a complex thing, but when it's narrowed down, it's quite simple. I must admit, I wasn't very good at Biology in High School, but I am more interested in it now... It's fun!
Genetic Inheritance, while being quite complex, is rather simple. Certain traits are passed down from parents to their children, and they pass their traits on to their children, and so on. The genes that pass on those traits are known as Genotypes, and the visual expression of those traits is called Phenotypes. In a punnett square, Genotypes are represented by two letters, either upper case, lower case, or one of each. Upper case letters represent Dominant Alleles (the stronger gene), and lower case letters represent the Recessive Alleles (the weaker gene). Alleles are an alternate form of a gene that happens in the same spot on chromosomes, which when combined, create a Genotype. There are three different types of Genotypes: Homozygous Dominant (DD), Heterozygous (Dr), and Homozygous Recessive (rr). When you cross parents Genotypes in a punnett square, you get the four possible offspring Genotypes. For example, you have a blonde haired, blue eyed dad, and a brown haired, green eyed mom. We'll say that the brown hair and blue eyes are dominant, and the blonde hair and green eyes are recessive.
Brown hair=H Blonde hair=h
Blue eyes=E
Green eyes=e
Mom=He
Dad=hE
Offspring=HhEe
When the genes are crossed, the punnett shows that all four offspring will have brown hair and blue eyes.
And that is the basics of Genetic Inheritance (genotype, phenotype, allele, cross, dominant, recessive).
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